Articles | Volume 13, issue 11
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1697-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1697-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Method article
| 
09 Nov 2022
Method article |
| 09 Nov 2022
| 09 Nov 2022
Clustering has a meaning: optimization of angular similarity to detect 3D geometric anomalies in geological terrains
Michał P. Michalak
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Institute of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Będzińska 60, 41-205 Sosnowiec, Poland
Faculty of Geology, Geophysics and Environmental Protection, AGH University of Science and Technology, Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Cracow, Poland
Lesław Teper
Institute of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Będzińska 60, 41-205 Sosnowiec, Poland
Florian Wellmann
Computational Geoscience and Reservoir Engineering, RWTH Aachen, Wüllnerstr. 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany
Jerzy Żaba
Institute of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Będzińska 60, 41-205 Sosnowiec, Poland
Krzysztof Gaidzik
Institute of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Będzińska 60, 41-205 Sosnowiec, Poland
Marcin Kostur
Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Silesia in Katowice, 75. Pułku Piechoty, 41-500 Chorzów, Poland
Yuriy P. Maystrenko
The Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), Leiv Eirikssons vei 39, 7040 Trondheim, Norway
Paulina Leonowicz
Faculty of Geology, University of Warsaw, Żwirki i Wigury 93, 02-089 Warsaw, Poland
Related authors
Michał P. Michalak, Janusz Morawiec, and Peter Menzel
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3327, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3327, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study analyzes geological faults using triangular surface data to model displaced horizons, considering scenarios with and without elevation uncertainties. Formal proofs and computational experiments show that without elevation errors, identical dip directions occur. Even with uncertainties, the expected dip direction remains consistent. The findings offer insights for predicting fault geometry in data-sparse environments, improving fault modeling with imprecise elevation data.
Michał Michalak, Christian Gerhards, and Peter Menzel
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2004, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2004, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents a novel method for fault detection on geological terrains. Using synthetic models, we applied machine learning to classify terrain shape and nearby features. Testing on real borehole data validated its effectiveness across various fault orientations. The supervised approach represents a significant improvement over older methods that relied on simpler clustering techniques which were capable of identifying less orientations of faults.
Denise Degen, Moritz Ziegler, Oliver Heidbach, Andreas Henk, Karsten Reiter, and Florian Wellmann
Solid Earth, 16, 477–502, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-477-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-477-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Obtaining reliable estimates of the subsurface state distributions is essential to determine the location of, e.g., potential nuclear waste disposal sites. However, providing these is challenging since it requires solving the problem numerous times, yielding high computational cost. To overcome this, we use a physics-based machine learning method to construct surrogate models. We demonstrate how it produces physics-preserving predictions, which differentiates it from purely data-driven approaches.
Michał P. Michalak, Janusz Morawiec, and Peter Menzel
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3327, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3327, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study analyzes geological faults using triangular surface data to model displaced horizons, considering scenarios with and without elevation uncertainties. Formal proofs and computational experiments show that without elevation errors, identical dip directions occur. Even with uncertainties, the expected dip direction remains consistent. The findings offer insights for predicting fault geometry in data-sparse environments, improving fault modeling with imprecise elevation data.
Michał Michalak, Christian Gerhards, and Peter Menzel
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2004, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2004, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents a novel method for fault detection on geological terrains. Using synthetic models, we applied machine learning to classify terrain shape and nearby features. Testing on real borehole data validated its effectiveness across various fault orientations. The supervised approach represents a significant improvement over older methods that relied on simpler clustering techniques which were capable of identifying less orientations of faults.
Denise Degen, Daniel Caviedes Voullième, Susanne Buiter, Harrie-Jan Hendricks Franssen, Harry Vereecken, Ana González-Nicolás, and Florian Wellmann
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 7375–7409, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-7375-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-7375-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In geosciences, we often use simulations based on physical laws. These simulations can be computationally expensive, which is a problem if simulations must be performed many times (e.g., to add error bounds). We show how a novel machine learning method helps to reduce simulation time. In comparison to other approaches, which typically only look at the output of a simulation, the method considers physical laws in the simulation itself. The method provides reliable results faster than standard.
Michael Hillier, Florian Wellmann, Eric A. de Kemp, Boyan Brodaric, Ernst Schetselaar, and Karine Bédard
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 6987–7012, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6987-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6987-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Neural networks can be used effectively to model three-dimensional geological structures from point data, sampling geological interfaces, units, and structural orientations. Existing neural network approaches for this type of modelling are advanced by the efficient incorporation of unconformities, new knowledge inputs, and improved data fitting techniques. These advances permit the modelling of more complex geology in diverse geological settings, different-sized areas, and various data regimes.
Mohammad Moulaeifard, Simon Bernard, and Florian Wellmann
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 3565–3579, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3565-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3565-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In this work, we propose a flexible framework to generate and interact with geological models using explicit surface representations. The essence of the work lies in the determination of the flexible control mesh, topologically similar to the main geological structure, watertight and controllable with few control points, to manage the geological structures. We exploited the subdivision surface method in our work, which is commonly used in the animation and gaming industry.
Alexander Schaaf, Miguel de la Varga, Florian Wellmann, and Clare E. Bond
Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 3899–3913, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-3899-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-3899-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Uncertainty is an inherent property of any model of the subsurface. We show how geological topology information – how different regions of rocks in the subsurface are connected – can be used to train uncertain geological models to reduce uncertainty. More widely, the method demonstrates the use of probabilistic machine learning (Bayesian inference) to train structural geological models on auxiliary geological knowledge that can be encoded in graph structures.
Stephanie Thiesen, Diego M. Vieira, Mirko Mälicke, Ralf Loritz, J. Florian Wellmann, and Uwe Ehret
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 4523–4540, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-4523-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-4523-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
A spatial interpolator has been proposed for exploring the information content of the data in the light of geostatistics and information theory. It showed comparable results to traditional interpolators, with the advantage of presenting generalization properties. We discussed three different ways of combining distributions and their implications for the probabilistic results. By its construction, the method provides a suitable and flexible framework for uncertainty analysis and decision-making.
Fabian Antonio Stamm, Miguel de la Varga, and Florian Wellmann
Solid Earth, 10, 2015–2043, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-2015-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-2015-2019, 2019
Miguel de la Varga, Alexander Schaaf, and Florian Wellmann
Geosci. Model Dev., 12, 1–32, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-1-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-1-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
GemPy is an open-source Python-based 3-D structural geological modeling software, which allows the implicit (i.e. automatic) creation of complex geological models from interface and orientation data. GemPy is implemented in the programming language Python, making use of a highly efficient underlying library, Theano, for efficient code generation that performs automatic differentiation. This enables the link to probabilistic machine-learning and Bayesian inference frameworks.
Raphael Schneeberger, Miguel de La Varga, Daniel Egli, Alfons Berger, Florian Kober, Florian Wellmann, and Marco Herwegh
Solid Earth, 8, 987–1002, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-8-987-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-8-987-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Structural 3-D modelling has become a widely used technique within applied projects. We performed a typical modelling workflow for a study site with the occurrence of an underground facility. This exceptional setting enabled us to test the surface-based extrapolation of faults with the mapped faults underground. We estimated the extrapolation-related uncertainty with probabilistic 2-D interpolation. This research was conducted to improve structural 3-D modelling in less-constrained areas.
J. Florian Wellmann, Sam T. Thiele, Mark D. Lindsay, and Mark W. Jessell
Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 1019–1035, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-1019-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-1019-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We often obtain knowledge about the subsurface in the form of structural geological models, as a basis for subsurface usage or resource extraction. Here, we provide a modelling code to construct such models on the basis of significant deformational events in geological history, encapsulated in kinematic equations. Our methods simplify complex dynamic processes, but enable us to evaluate how events interact, and finally how certain we are about predictions of structures in the subsurface.
Related subject area
Subject area: Tectonic plate interactions, magma genesis, and lithosphere deformation at all scales | Editorial team: Structural geology and tectonics, paleoseismology, rock physics, experimental deformation | Discipline: Structural geology
Lithologically constrained velocity–density relationships and vertical stress gradients in the North Alpine Foreland Basin, SE Germany
Unbiased statistical length analysis of linear features: adapting survival analysis to geological applications
Earthquake swarms frozen in an exhumed hydrothermal system (Bolfin Fault Zone, Chile)
Reconciling post-orogenic faulting, paleostress evolution, and structural inheritance in the seismogenic northern Apennines (Italy): insights from the Monti Martani Fault System
Understanding the stress field at the lateral termination of a thrust fold using generic geomechanical models and clustering methods
Localized shear and distributed strain accumulation as competing shear accommodation mechanisms in crustal shear zones: constraining their dictating factors
Strike-slip kinematics from crustal to outcrop-scale: the impact of the material properties on the analogue modelling
Influence of water on crystallographic preferred orientation patterns in a naturally deformed quartzite
Geomorphic expressions of active rifting reflect the role of structural inheritance: a new model for the evolution of the Shanxi Rift, northern China
The Size Distributions of Faults and Earthquakes: Implications for Orogen-Internal Seismogenic Deformation
Poro-perm relations of Mesozoic carbonates and fault breccia, Araxos Promontory, NW Greece
Driven magmatism and crustal thinning of coastal southern China in response to subduction
Selection and characterization of the target fault for fluid-induced activation and earthquake rupture experiments
Naturally fractured reservoir characterisation in heterogeneous sandstones: insight for uranium in situ recovery (Imouraren, Niger)
Multiscalar 3D temporal structural characterisation of Smøla island, mid-Norwegian passive margin: an analogue for unravelling the tectonic history of offshore basement highs
Impact of faults on the remote stress state
Subduction plate interface shear stress associated with rapid subduction at deep slow earthquake depths: example from the Sanbagawa belt, southwestern Japan
Multiple phase rifting and subsequent inversion in the West Netherlands Basin: implications for geothermal reservoir characterization
Analogue modelling of basin inversion: implications for the Araripe Basin (Brazil)
Natural fracture patterns at Swift Reservoir anticline, NW Montana: the influence of structural position and lithology from multiple observation scales
Rapid hydration and weakening of anhydrite under stress: implications for natural hydration in the Earth's crust and mantle
Analogue experiments on releasing and restraining bends and their application to the study of the Barents Shear Margin
Structural framework and timing of the Pahtohavare Cu ± Au deposits, Kiruna mining district, Sweden
Does the syn- versus post-rift thickness ratio have an impact on the inversion-related structural style?
Inversion of accommodation zones in salt-bearing extensional systems: insights from analog modeling
Structural control of inherited salt structures during inversion of a domino basement-fault system from an analogue modelling approach
Kinematics and time-resolved evolution of the main thrust-sense shear zone in the Eo-Alpine orogenic wedge (the Vinschgau Shear Zone, eastern Alps)
Role of inheritance during tectonic inversion of a rift system in basement-involved to salt-decoupled transition: analogue modelling and application to the Pyrenean–Biscay system
Water release and homogenization by dynamic recrystallization of quartz
Hydrothermal activity of the Lake Abhe geothermal field (Djibouti): Structural controls and paths for further exploration
Time-dependent frictional properties of granular materials used in analogue modelling: implications for mimicking fault healing during reactivation and inversion
Large grain-size-dependent rheology contrasts of halite at low differential stress: evidence from microstructural study of naturally deformed gneissic Zechstein 2 rock salt (Kristallbrockensalz) from the northern Netherlands
Analogue modelling of the inversion of multiple extensional basins in foreland fold-and-thrust belts
A contribution to the quantification of crustal shortening and kinematics of deformation across the Western Andes ( ∼ 20–22° S)
Rift thermal inheritance in the SW Alps (France): insights from RSCM thermometry and 1D thermal numerical modelling
The Luangwa Rift Active Fault Database and fault reactivation along the southwestern branch of the East African Rift
Shear zone evolution and the path of earthquake rupture
Mechanical compaction mechanisms in the input sediments of the Sumatra subduction complex – insights from microstructural analysis of cores from IODP Expedition 362
Detecting micro fractures: a comprehensive comparison of conventional and machine-learning-based segmentation methods
Multiscale lineament analysis and permeability heterogeneity of fractured crystalline basement blocks
Structural characterization and K–Ar illite dating of reactivated, complex and heterogeneous fault zones: lessons from the Zuccale Fault, Northern Apennines
How do differences in interpreting seismic images affect estimates of geological slip rates?
Progressive veining during peridotite carbonation: insights from listvenites in Hole BT1B, Samail ophiolite (Oman)
Tectonic evolution of the Indio Hills segment of the San Andreas fault in southern California, southwestern USA
Structural diagenesis in ultra-deep tight sandstones in the Kuqa Depression, Tarim Basin, China
Variscan structures and their control on latest to post-Variscan basin architecture: insights from the westernmost Bohemian Massif and southeastern Germany
Multi-disciplinary characterizations of the BedrettoLab – a new underground geoscience research facility
Biotite supports long-range diffusive transport in dissolution–precipitation creep in halite through small porosity fluctuations
De-risking the energy transition by quantifying the uncertainties in fault stability
Virtual field trip to the Esla Nappe (Cantabrian Zone, NW Spain): delivering traditional geological mapping skills remotely using real data
Peter Obermeier, Florian Duschl, and Michael C. Drews
Solid Earth, 16, 425–440, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-425-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-425-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate geophysical properties and the distribution of vertical stress, which is defined by the weight of the rock column above a certain location in the subsurface, in the upper 5 km of the North Alpine Foreland Basin in Germany. Our results help us to understand the present-day geological configuration and to improve safety for subsurface use, such as deep geothermal energy production in the study area.
Gabriele Benedetti, Stefano Casiraghi, Daniela Bertacchi, and Andrea Bistacchi
Solid Earth, 16, 367–390, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-367-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-367-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
At any scale, the limited size of a study area introduces a bias in the interpretation of linear features, defined as right-censoring bias. We show the effects of not considering such bias and apply survival analysis techniques to obtain unbiased estimates of multiple parametrical distributions in three censored length datasets. Finally, we propose a novel approach to select the most representative model from a sensible candidate pool using the probability integral transform technique.
Simone Masoch, Giorgio Pennacchioni, Michele Fondriest, Rodrigo Gomila, Piero Poli, José Cembrano, and Giulio Di Toro
Solid Earth, 16, 23–43, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-23-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-23-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate an exhumed hydrothermal system in the Atacama Desert (Chile) to understand how earthquake swarms form. Wall rocks near fault veins experienced high-stress pulses, and fault veins underwent cyclic crack opening and shearing. These findings suggest ancient earthquake swarm activity, from dynamic crack propagation to repeated crack opening and shearing. This system represents a unique geological record of earthquake swarms, providing insights into their initiation and evolution.
Riccardo Asti, Selina Bonini, Giulio Viola, and Gianluca Vignaroli
Solid Earth, 15, 1525–1551, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1525-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1525-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study addresses the tectonic evolution of the seismogenic Monti Martani Fault System (northern Apennines, Italy). By applying a field-based structural geology approach, we reconstruct the evolution of the stress field and we challenge the current interpretation of the fault system in terms of both geometry and state of activity. We stress that the peculiar behavior of this system during post-orogenic extension is still significantly influenced by the pre-orogenic structural template.
Anthony Adwan, Bertrand Maillot, Pauline Souloumiac, Christophe Barnes, Christophe Nussbaum, Meinert Rahn, and Thomas Van Stiphout
Solid Earth, 15, 1445–1463, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1445-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1445-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We use computer simulations to study how stress is distributed in large-scale geological models, focusing on how fault lines behave under pressure. By running many 2D and 3D simulations with varying conditions, we discover patterns in how faults form and interact. Our findings reveal that even small changes in conditions can lead to different stress outcomes. This research helps us better understand earthquake mechanics and could improve predictions of fault behavior in real-world scenarios.
Pramit Chatterjee, Arnab Roy, and Nibir Mandal
Solid Earth, 15, 1281–1301, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1281-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1281-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding strain accumulation processes in shear zones is essential for explaining failure mechanisms at great crustal depths. This study explores the rheological and kinematic factors determining the varying modes of shear accommodation in natural shear zones. Numerical simulations suggest that an interplay of parameters – initial viscosity, bulk shear rate, and internal cohesion – governs the dominance of one accommodation mechanism over another.
Luigi Massaro, Jürgen Adam, Elham Jonade, Silvia Negrão, and Yasuhiro Yamada
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3116, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3116, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this manuscript, we investigated the kinematics and dynamics of strike-slip damage zones using laboratory mechanical tests and analogue modelling techniques. The results underline the importance of a multi-scale approach (from crustal to outcrop-scale) to improve the understanding of such deformation processes, deriving fundamental correlations with the physical and mechanical properties of the model materials applied in the experiments.
Jeffrey M. Rahl, Brendan Moehringer, Kenneth S. Befus, and John S. Singleton
Solid Earth, 15, 1233–1240, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1233-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1233-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
At the high temperatures present in the deeper crust, minerals such as quartz can flow much like silly putty. The detailed mechanisms of how atoms are reorganized depends upon several factors, such as the temperature and the rate of which the mineral changes shape. We present observations from a naturally deformed rock showing that the amount of water present also influences the type of deformation in quartz, with implications for geological interpretations.
Malte Froemchen, Ken J. W. McCaffrey, Mark B. Allen, Jeroen van Hunen, Thomas B. Phillips, and Yueren Xu
Solid Earth, 15, 1203–1231, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1203-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1203-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The Shanxi Rift is a young, active rift in northern China that formed atop a Proterozoic orogen. The impact of these structures on active rift faults is poorly understood. Here, we quantify the landscape response to active faulting and compare it with published maps of inherited structures. We find that inherited structures played an important role in the segmentation of the Shanxi Rift and in the development of rift interaction zones, which are the most active regions in the Shanxi Rift.
Sandro Truttmann, Tobias Diehl, Marco Herwegh, and Stefan Wiemer
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2975, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2975, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our study investigates the statistical relationship between geological faults and earthquakes in the Southwestern Swiss Alps. We analyze how the fault size and earthquake rupture are related and find differences in how faults at different depths rupture seismically. While shallow faults tend to rupture only partially, deeper faults are more likely to rupture along their entire length, potentially resulting in larger earthquakes.
Sergio C. Vinciguerra, Federico Vagnon, Irene Bottero, Jerome Fortin, Angela Vita Petrullo, Dimitrios Spanos, Aristotelis Pagoulatos, and Fabrizio Agosta
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2823, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2823, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We assessed the poro-perm relations of both host rocks and fault rocks of Mesozoic carbonate rocks, by integrating a laboratory petrophysical studyn with a digital image analysis. Three different protocols were employed to compute permeability: i) Effective Medium Theory on laboratory data, ii) constant crack aperture and iii) crack density values from 2D images. Carbonate host rocks did not show a clear poro-perm trend due to the presence of stiff, sub-rounded pores and of small vugs.
Jinbao Su, Wenbin Zhu, and Guangwei Li
Solid Earth, 15, 1133–1141, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1133-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1133-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The late Mesozoic igneous rocks in the South China Block exhibit flare-ups and lulls, which form in compressional or extensional backgrounds. The ascending of magma forms a mush-like head and decreases crustal thickness. The presence of faults and pre-existing magmas will accelerate emplacement of underplating magma. The magmatism at different times may be formed under similar subduction conditions, and the boundary compression forces will delay magma ascent.
Peter Achtziger-Zupančič, Alberto Ceccato, Alba Simona Zappone, Giacomo Pozzi, Alexis Shakas, Florian Amann, Whitney Maria Behr, Daniel Escallon Botero, Domenico Giardini, Marian Hertrich, Mohammadreza Jalali, Xiaodong Ma, Men-Andrin Meier, Julian Osten, Stefan Wiemer, and Massimo Cocco
Solid Earth, 15, 1087–1112, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1087-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1087-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We detail the selection and characterization of a fault zone for earthquake experiments in the Fault Activation and Earthquake Ruptures (FEAR) project at the Bedretto Lab. FEAR, which studies earthquake processes, overcame data collection challenges near faults. The fault zone in Rotondo granite was selected based on geometry, monitorability, and hydro-mechanical properties. Remote sensing, borehole logging, and geological mapping were used to create a 3D model for precise monitoring.
Maxime Jamet, Gregory Ballas, Roger Soliva, Olivier Gerbeaud, Thierry Lefebvre, Christine Leredde, and Didier Loggia
Solid Earth, 15, 895–920, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-895-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-895-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study characterizes the Tchirezrine II sandstone reservoir in northern Niger. Crucial for potential uranium in situ recovery (ISR), our multifaceted approach reveals (i) a network of homogeneously distributed orthogonal structures, (ii) the impact of clustered E–W fault structures on anisotropic fluid flow, and (iii) local changes in the matrix behaviour of the reservoir as a function of the density and nature of the deformation structure.
Matthew S. Hodge, Guri Venvik, Jochen Knies, Roelant van der Lelij, Jasmin Schönenberger, Øystein Nordgulen, Marco Brönner, Aziz Nasuti, and Giulio Viola
Solid Earth, 15, 589–615, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-589-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-589-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Smøla island, in the mid-Norwegian margin, has complex fracture and fault patterns resulting from tectonic activity. This study uses a multiple-method approach to unravel Smøla's tectonic history. We found five different phases of deformation related to various fracture geometries and minerals dating back hundreds of millions of years. 3D models of these features visualise these structures in space. This approach may help us to understand offshore oil and gas reservoirs hosted in the basement.
Karsten Reiter, Oliver Heidbach, and Moritz O. Ziegler
Solid Earth, 15, 305–327, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-305-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-305-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
It is generally assumed that faults have an influence on the stress state of the Earth’s crust. It is questionable whether this influence is still present far away from a fault. Simple numerical models were used to investigate the extent of the influence of faults on the stress state. Several models with different fault representations were investigated. The stress fluctuations further away from the fault (> 1 km) are very small.
Yukinojo Koyama, Simon R. Wallis, and Takayoshi Nagaya
Solid Earth, 15, 143–166, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-143-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-143-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Stress along a subduction plate boundary is important for understanding subduction phenomena such as earthquakes. We estimated paleo-stress using quartz recrystallized grain size combined with deformation temperature and P–T paths of exhumed rocks. The obtained results show differential stresses of 30.8–82.7 MPa consistent over depths of 17–27 km in the paleo-subduction boundary. The obtained stress may represent the initial conditions under which slow earthquakes nucleated in the same domain.
Annelotte Weert, Kei Ogata, Francesco Vinci, Coen Leo, Giovanni Bertotti, Jerome Amory, and Stefano Tavani
Solid Earth, 15, 121–141, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-121-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-121-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
On the road to a sustainable planet, geothermal energy is considered one of the main substitutes when it comes to heating. The geological history of an area can have a major influence on the application of these geothermal systems, as demonstrated in the West Netherlands Basin. Here, multiple episodes of rifting and subsequent basin inversion have controlled the distribution of the reservoir rocks, thus influencing the locations where geothermal energy can be exploited.
Pâmela C. Richetti, Frank Zwaan, Guido Schreurs, Renata S. Schmitt, and Timothy C. Schmid
Solid Earth, 14, 1245–1266, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1245-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1245-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Araripe Basin in NE Brazil was originally formed during Cretaceous times, as South America and Africa broke up. The basin is an important analogue to offshore South Atlantic break-up basins; its sediments were uplifted and are now found at 1000 m height, allowing for studies thereof, but the cause of the uplift remains debated. Here we ran a series of tectonic laboratory experiments that show how a specific plate tectonic configuration can explain the evolution of the Araripe Basin.
Adam J. Cawood, Hannah Watkins, Clare E. Bond, Marian J. Warren, and Mark A. Cooper
Solid Earth, 14, 1005–1030, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1005-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1005-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Here we test conceptual models of fracture development by investigating fractures across multiple scales. We find that most fractures increase in abundance towards the fold hinge, and we interpret these as being fold related. Other fractures at the site show inconsistent orientations and are unrelated to fold formation. Our results show that predicting fracture patterns requires the consideration of multiple geologic variables.
Johanna Heeb, David Healy, Nicholas E. Timms, and Enrique Gomez-Rivas
Solid Earth, 14, 985–1003, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-985-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-985-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Hydration of rocks is a key process in the Earth’s crust and mantle that is accompanied by changes in physical traits and mechanical behaviour of rocks. This study assesses the influence of stress on hydration reaction kinetics and mechanics in experiments on anhydrite. We show that hydration occurs readily under stress and results in localized hydration along fractures and mechanic weakening. New gypsum growth is selective and depends on the stress field and host anhydrite crystal orientation.
Roy Helge Gabrielsen, Panagiotis Athanasios Giannenas, Dimitrios Sokoutis, Ernst Willingshofer, Muhammad Hassaan, and Jan Inge Faleide
Solid Earth, 14, 961–983, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-961-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-961-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Barents Shear Margin defines the border between the relatively shallow Barents Sea that is situated on a continental plate and the deep ocean. This margin's evolution history was probably influenced by plate tectonic reorganizations. From scaled experiments, we deduced several types of structures (faults, folds, and sedimentary basins) that help us to improve the understanding of the history of the opening of the North Atlantic.
Leslie Logan, Ervin Veress, Joel B. H. Andersson, Olof Martinsson, and Tobias E. Bauer
Solid Earth, 14, 763–784, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-763-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-763-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Pahtohavare Cu ± Au deposits in the Kiruna mining district have a dubious timing of formation and have not been contextualized within an up-to-date tectonic framework. Structural mapping was carried out to reveal that the deposits are hosted in brittle structures that cut a noncylindrical, SE-plunging anticline constrained to have formed during the late-Svecokarelian orogeny. These results show that Cu ± Au mineralization formed more than ca. 80 Myr after iron oxide–apatite mineralization.
Alexandra Tamas, Dan M. Tamas, Gabor Tari, Csaba Krezsek, Alexandru Lapadat, and Zsolt Schleder
Solid Earth, 14, 741–761, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-741-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-741-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Tectonic processes are complex and often difficult to understand due to the limitations of surface or subsurface data. One such process is inversion tectonics, which means that an area initially developed in an extension (such as the opening of an ocean) is reversed to compression (the process leading to mountain building). In this research, we use a laboratory method (analogue modelling), and with the help of a sandbox, we try to better understand structures (folds/faults) related to inversion.
Elizabeth Parker Wilson, Pablo Granado, Pablo Santolaria, Oriol Ferrer, and Josep Anton Muñoz
Solid Earth, 14, 709–739, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-709-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-709-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This work focuses on the control of accommodation zones on extensional and subsequent inversion in salt-detached domains using sandbox analogue models. During extension, the transfer zone acts as a pathway for the movement of salt, changing the expected geometries. When inverted, the salt layer and syn-inversion sedimentation control the deformation style in the salt-detached cover system. Three natural cases are compared to the model results and show similar inversion geometries.
Oriol Ferrer, Eloi Carola, and Ken McClay
Solid Earth, 14, 571–589, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-571-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-571-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Using an experimental approach based on scaled sandbox models, this work aims to understand how salt above different rotational fault blocks influences the cover geometry and evolution, first during extension and then during inversion. The results show that inherited salt structures constrain contractional deformation. We show for the first time how welds and fault welds are reopened during contractional deformation, having direct implications for the subsurface exploration of natural resources.
Chiara Montemagni, Stefano Zanchetta, Martina Rocca, Igor M. Villa, Corrado Morelli, Volkmar Mair, and Andrea Zanchi
Solid Earth, 14, 551–570, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-551-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-551-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Vinschgau Shear Zone (VSZ) is one of the largest and most significant shear zones developed within the Late Cretaceous thrust stack in the Austroalpine domain of the eastern Alps. 40Ar / 39Ar geochronology constrains the activity of the VSZ between 97 and 80 Ma. The decreasing vorticity towards the core of the shear zone, coupled with the younging of mylonites, points to a shear thinning behavior. The deepest units of the Eo-Alpine orogenic wedge were exhumed along the VSZ.
Jordi Miró, Oriol Ferrer, Josep Anton Muñoz, and Gianreto Manastchal
Solid Earth, 14, 425–445, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-425-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-425-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Using the Asturian–Basque–Cantabrian system and analogue (sandbox) models, this work focuses on the linkage between basement-controlled and salt-decoupled domains and how deformation is accommodated between the two during extension and subsequent inversion. Analogue models show significant structural variability in the transitional domain, with oblique structures that can be strongly modified by syn-contractional sedimentation. Experimental results are consistent with the case study.
Junichi Fukuda, Takamoto Okudaira, and Yukiko Ohtomo
Solid Earth, 14, 409–424, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-409-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-409-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We measured water distributions in deformed quartz by infrared spectroscopy mapping and used the results to discuss changes in water distribution resulting from textural development. Because of the grain size reduction process (dynamic recrystallization), water contents decrease from 40–1750 wt ppm in host grains of ~2 mm to 100–510 wt ppm in recrystallized regions composed of fine grains of ~10 µm. Our results indicate that water is released and homogenized by dynamic recrystallization.
Bastien Walter, Yves Géraud, Alexiane Favier, Nadjib Chibati, and Marc Diraison
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-397, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-397, 2023
Preprint archived
Short summary
Short summary
Lake Abhe in southwestern Djibouti is known for its exposures of massive hydrothermal chimneys and hot springs on the lake’s eastern shore. This study highlights the control of the main structural faults of the area on the development of these hydrothermal features. This work contributes to better understand hydrothermal fluid pathways in this area and may help further exploration for the geothermal development of this remarkable site.
Michael Rudolf, Matthias Rosenau, and Onno Oncken
Solid Earth, 14, 311–331, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-311-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-311-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Analogue models of tectonic processes rely on the reproduction of their geometry, kinematics and dynamics. An important property is fault behaviour, which is linked to the frictional characteristics of the fault gouge. This is represented by granular materials, such as quartz sand. In our study we investigate the time-dependent frictional properties of various analogue materials and highlight their impact on the suitability of these materials for analogue models focusing on fault reactivation.
Jessica Barabasch, Joyce Schmatz, Jop Klaver, Alexander Schwedt, and Janos L. Urai
Solid Earth, 14, 271–291, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-271-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-271-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We analysed Zechstein salt with microscopes and observed specific microstructures that indicate much faster deformation in rock salt with fine halite grains when compared to salt with larger grains. This is important because people build large cavities in the subsurface salt for energy storage or want to deposit radioactive waste inside it. When engineers and scientists use grain-size data and equations that include this mechanism, it will help to make better predictions in geological models.
Nicolás Molnar and Susanne Buiter
Solid Earth, 14, 213–235, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-213-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-213-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Progression of orogenic wedges over pre-existing extensional structures is common in nature, but deciphering the spatio-temporal evolution of deformation from the geological record remains challenging. Our laboratory experiments provide insights on how horizontal stresses are transferred across a heterogeneous crust, constrain which pre-shortening conditions can either favour or hinder the reactivatation of extensional structures, and explain what implications they have on critical taper theory.
Tania Habel, Martine Simoes, Robin Lacassin, Daniel Carrizo, and German Aguilar
Solid Earth, 14, 17–42, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-17-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-17-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Central Andes are one of the most emblematic reliefs on Earth, but their western flank remains understudied. Here we explore two rare key sites in the hostile conditions of the Atacama desert to build cross-sections, quantify crustal shortening, and discuss the timing of this deformation at ∼20–22°S. We propose that the structures of the Western Andes accommodated significant crustal shortening here, but only during the earliest stages of mountain building.
Naïm Célini, Frédéric Mouthereau, Abdeltif Lahfid, Claude Gout, and Jean-Paul Callot
Solid Earth, 14, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the peak temperature of sedimentary rocks of the SW Alps (France), using Raman spectroscopy on carbonaceous material. This method provides an estimate of the peak temperature achieved by organic-rich rocks. To determine the timing and the tectonic context of the origin of these temperatures we use 1D thermal modelling. We find that the high temperatures up to 300 °C were achieved during precollisional extensional events, not during tectonic burial in the Western Alps.
Luke N. J. Wedmore, Tess Turner, Juliet Biggs, Jack N. Williams, Henry M. Sichingabula, Christine Kabumbu, and Kawawa Banda
Solid Earth, 13, 1731–1753, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1731-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1731-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Mapping and compiling the attributes of faults capable of hosting earthquakes are important for the next generation of seismic hazard assessment. We document 18 active faults in the Luangwa Rift, Zambia, in an active fault database. These faults are between 9 and 207 km long offset Quaternary sediments, have scarps up to ~30 m high, and are capable of hosting earthquakes from Mw 5.8 to 8.1. We associate the Molaza Fault with surface ruptures from two unattributed M 6+ 20th century earthquakes.
Erik M. Young, Christie D. Rowe, and James D. Kirkpatrick
Solid Earth, 13, 1607–1629, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1607-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1607-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Studying how earthquakes spread deep within the faults they originate from is crucial to improving our understanding of the earthquake process. We mapped preserved ancient earthquake surfaces that are now exposed in South Africa and studied their relationship with the shape and type of rocks surrounding them. We determined that these surfaces are not random and are instead associated with specific kinds of rocks and that their shape is linked to the evolution of the faults in which they occur.
Sivaji Lahiri, Kitty L. Milliken, Peter Vrolijk, Guillaume Desbois, and Janos L. Urai
Solid Earth, 13, 1513–1539, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1513-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1513-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding the mechanism of mechanical compaction is important. Previous studies on mechanical compaction were mostly done by performing experiments. Studies on natural rocks are rare due to compositional heterogeneity of the sedimentary succession with depth. Due to remarkable similarity in composition and grain size, the Sumatra subduction complex provides a unique opportunity to study the micromechanism of mechanical compaction on natural samples.
Dongwon Lee, Nikolaos Karadimitriou, Matthias Ruf, and Holger Steeb
Solid Earth, 13, 1475–1494, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1475-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1475-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This research article focuses on filtering and segmentation methods employed in high-resolution µXRCT studies for crystalline rocks, bearing fractures, or fracture networks, of very small aperture. Specifically, we focus on the identification of artificially induced (via quenching) fractures in Carrara marble samples. Results from the same dataset from all five different methods adopted were produced and compared with each other in terms of their output quality and time efficiency.
Alberto Ceccato, Giulia Tartaglia, Marco Antonellini, and Giulio Viola
Solid Earth, 13, 1431–1453, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1431-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1431-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Earth's surface is commonly characterized by the occurrence of fractures, which can be mapped, and their can be geometry quantified on digital representations of the surface at different scales of observation. Here we present a series of analytical and statistical tools, which can aid the quantification of fracture spatial distribution at different scales. In doing so, we can improve our understanding of how fracture geometry and geology affect fluid flow within the fractured Earth crust.
Giulio Viola, Giovanni Musumeci, Francesco Mazzarini, Lorenzo Tavazzani, Manuel Curzi, Espen Torgersen, Roelant van der Lelij, and Luca Aldega
Solid Earth, 13, 1327–1351, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1327-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1327-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A structural-geochronological approach helps to unravel the Zuccale Fault's architecture. By mapping its internal structure and dating some of its fault rocks, we constrained a deformation history lasting 20 Myr starting at ca. 22 Ma. Such long activity is recorded by now tightly juxtaposed brittle structural facies, i.e. different types of fault rocks. Our results also have implications on the regional evolution of the northern Apennines, of which the Zuccale Fault is an important structure.
Wan-Lin Hu
Solid Earth, 13, 1281–1290, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1281-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1281-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Having a seismic image is generally expected to enable us to better determine fault geometry and thus estimate geological slip rates accurately. However, the process of interpreting seismic images may introduce unintended uncertainties, which have not yet been widely discussed. Here, a case of a shear fault-bend fold in the frontal Himalaya is used to demonstrate how differences in interpretations can affect the following estimates of slip rates and dependent conclusions.
Manuel D. Menzel, Janos L. Urai, Estibalitz Ukar, Thierry Decrausaz, and Marguerite Godard
Solid Earth, 13, 1191–1218, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1191-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1191-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Mantle rocks can bind large quantities of carbon by reaction with CO2, but this capacity requires fluid pathways not to be clogged by carbonate. We studied mantle rocks from Oman to understand the mechanisms allowing their transformation into carbonate and quartz. Using advanced imaging techniques, we show that abundant veins were essential fluid pathways driving the reaction. Our results show that tectonic stress was important for fracture opening and a key ingredient for carbon fixation.
Jean-Baptiste P. Koehl, Steffen G. Bergh, and Arthur G. Sylvester
Solid Earth, 13, 1169–1190, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1169-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1169-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The San Andreas fault is a major active fault associated with ongoing earthquake sequences in southern California. The present study investigates the development of the Indio Hills area in the Coachella Valley along the main San Andreas fault and the Indio Hills fault. The Indio Hills area is located near an area with high ongoing earthquake activity (Brawley seismic zone), and, therefore, its recent tectonic evolution has implications for earthquake prediction.
Jin Lai, Dong Li, Yong Ai, Hongkun Liu, Deyang Cai, Kangjun Chen, Yuqiang Xie, and Guiwen Wang
Solid Earth, 13, 975–1002, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-975-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-975-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
(1) Structural diagenesis analysis is performed on the ultra-deep tight sandstone. (2) Fracture and intergranular pores are related to the low in situ stress magnitudes. (3) Dissolution is associated with the presence of fracture.
Hamed Fazlikhani, Wolfgang Bauer, and Harald Stollhofen
Solid Earth, 13, 393–416, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-393-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-393-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Interpretation of newly acquired FRANKEN 2D seismic survey data in southeeastern Germany shows that upper Paleozoic low-grade metasedimentary rocks and possible nappe units are transported by Variscan shear zones to ca. 65 km west of the Franconian Fault System (FFS). We show that the locations of post-Variscan upper Carboniferous–Permian normal faults and associated graben and half-graben basins are controlled by the geometry of underlying Variscan shear zones.
Xiaodong Ma, Marian Hertrich, Florian Amann, Kai Bröker, Nima Gholizadeh Doonechaly, Valentin Gischig, Rebecca Hochreutener, Philipp Kästli, Hannes Krietsch, Michèle Marti, Barbara Nägeli, Morteza Nejati, Anne Obermann, Katrin Plenkers, Antonio P. Rinaldi, Alexis Shakas, Linus Villiger, Quinn Wenning, Alba Zappone, Falko Bethmann, Raymi Castilla, Francisco Seberto, Peter Meier, Thomas Driesner, Simon Loew, Hansruedi Maurer, Martin O. Saar, Stefan Wiemer, and Domenico Giardini
Solid Earth, 13, 301–322, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-301-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-301-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Questions on issues such as anthropogenic earthquakes and deep geothermal energy developments require a better understanding of the fractured rock. Experiments conducted at reduced scales but with higher-resolution observations can shed some light. To this end, the BedrettoLab was recently established in an existing tunnel in Ticino, Switzerland, with preliminary efforts to characterize realistic rock mass behavior at the hectometer scale.
Berit Schwichtenberg, Florian Fusseis, Ian B. Butler, and Edward Andò
Solid Earth, 13, 41–64, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-41-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-41-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Hydraulic rock properties such as porosity and permeability are relevant factors that have an impact on groundwater resources, geological repositories and fossil fuel reservoirs. We investigate the influence of chemical compaction upon the porosity evolution in salt–biotite mixtures and related transport length scales by conducting laboratory experiments in combination with 4-D analysis. Our observations invite a renewed discussion of the effect of sheet silicates on chemical compaction.
David Healy and Stephen Paul Hicks
Solid Earth, 13, 15–39, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-15-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-15-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The energy transition requires operations in faulted rocks. To manage the technical challenges and public concern over possible induced earthquakes, we need to quantify the risks. We calculate the probability of fault slip based on uncertain inputs, stresses, fluid pressures, and the mechanical properties of rocks in fault zones. Our examples highlight the specific gaps in our knowledge. Citizen science projects could produce useful data and include the public in the discussions about hazards.
Manuel I. de Paz-Álvarez, Thomas G. Blenkinsop, David M. Buchs, George E. Gibbons, and Lesley Cherns
Solid Earth, 13, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We describe a virtual geological mapping course implemented in response to travelling and social restrictions derived from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The course was designed to replicate a physical mapping exercise as closely as possible with the aid of real field data and photographs collected by the authors during previous years in the Cantabrian Zone (NW Spain). The course is delivered through Google Earth via a KMZ file with outcrop descriptions and links to GitHub-hosted photographs.
Cited articles
Abramovitz, T. and Thybo, H.:
Seismic images of Caledonian, lithosphere-scale collision structures in the southeastern North Sea along Mona Lisa Profile 2, Tectonophysics, 317, 27–54, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(99)00266-8, 2000.
Allmendinger, R. W.:
GMDE: Extracting quantitative information from geologic maps, Geosphere, 16, 1495–1507, https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02253.1, 2020.
Baldschuhn, R., Binot, S., Fleig, S., and Kockel, F.:
Geotektonischer Atlas von Nordwest-Deutschland und dem deutschen Nordsee-Sektor — Strukturen, Struckurenwicklung, Paläogeographie, Geol. Jahrb., A153, 1–88, 2001.
Bardziński, W., Lewandowski, J., Więckowski, R., and Zieliński, T.:
Objaśnienia do Szczegółowej Mapy Geologicznej Polski w skali 1:50 000, ark. Częstochowa (845), Wydawnictwa Geologiczne, Warszawa, 72 pp., 1986.
Bednarek, J., Haisig, J., Lewandowski, J., and Wilanowski, S.:
Objaśnienia do Szczegółowej Mapy Geologicznej Polski 1:50 000, Arkusz Kłobuck (808), PIG, Warszawa, 66 pp., 1992.
Bell, R. E., Jackson, C. A. L., Elliott, G. M., Gawthorpe, R. L., Sharp, I. R., and Michelsen, L.:
Insights into the development of major rift-related unconformities from geologically constrained subsidence modelling: Halten Terrace, offshore mid Norway, Basin Res., 26, 203–224, https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12049, 2014.
Benek, R., Kramer, W., McCann, T., Scheck, M., Negendank, J. F. W., Korich, D., Huebscher, H. D., and Bayer, U.:
Permo–Carboniferous magmatism of the Northeast German Basin, Tectonophysics, 266, 379–404, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(96)00199-0, 1996.
Bergen, K. J., Johnson, P. A., De Hoop, M. V., and Beroza, G. C.:
Machine learning for data-driven discovery in solid Earth geoscience, Science, 363, eaau0323, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau0323, 2019.
Betz, D., Führer, F., Greiner, G., and Plein, E.:
Evolution of the Lower Saxony Basin, Tectonophysics, 137, 127–170, https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(87)90319-2, 1987.
Bond, C. E.:
Uncertainty in structural interpretation: Lessons to be learnt, J. Struct. Geol., 74, 185–200, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2015.03.003, 2015.
Brink, H., Franke, D., Hoffmann, N., Horst, W., and Oncken, O.:
Structure and evolution of the North German Basin, in: The European Geotraverse: Integrative Studies, edited by: Freeman, R., Giese, P., and Mueler, S., European Science Foundation, Strasbourg, 195–212 pp., 1990.
Buła, Z., Habryn, R., Jachowicz-Zdanowska, M., and Żaba, J.:
The precambrian and lower paleozoic of the brunovistulicum (eastern part of the upper silesian block, southern Poland) – The state of the art, Geol. Q., 59, 123–134, https://doi.org/10.7306/gq.1203, 2015.
Carmichael, T. and Ailleres, L.:
Method and analysis for the upscaling of structural data, J. Struct. Geol., 83, 121–133, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2015.09.002, 2016.
Caumon, G., Collon-Drouaillet, P., Le Carlier De Veslud, C., Viseur, S., and Sausse, J.:
Surface-based 3D modeling of geological structures, Math. Geosci., 41, 927–945, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11004-009-9244-2, 2009.
Cawood, A. J., Bond, C. E., Howell, J. A., Butler, R. W. H., and Totake, Y.:
LiDAR, UAV or compass-clinometer? Accuracy, coverage and the effects on structural models, J. Struct. Geol., 98, 67–82, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2017.04.004, 2017.
Choi, J., Cho, H., Kwac, J., and Davis, L. S.:
Toward sparse coding on cosine distance, in: 2014 22nd International Conference on Pattern Recognition, 24–28 August 2014, Stockholm, Sweden, https://doi.org/10.1109/ICPR.2014.757, 2014.
Clausen, O. R. and Korstgård, J. A.:
Planar detaching faults in the southern Horn Graben, Danish North Sea, Mar. Petrol. Geol., 13, 537–548, https://doi.org/10.1016/0264-8172(96)00001-3, 1996.
Collon, P., Steckiewicz-Laurent, W., Pellerin, J., Laurent, G., Caumon, G., Reichart, G., and Vaute, L.:
3D geomodelling combining implicit surfaces and Voronoi-based remeshing: A case study in the Lorraine Coal Basin (France), Comput. Geosci., 77, 29–43, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2015.01.009, 2015.
Cracknell, M. J. and Reading, A. M.:
Geological mapping using remote sensing data: A comparison of five machine learning algorithms, their response to variations in the spatial distribution of training data and the use of explicit spatial information, Comput. Geosci., 63, 22–33, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2013.10.008, 2014.
Curtis, A.:
The science of subjectivity, Geology, 40, 95–96, https://doi.org/10.1130/focus012012.1, 2012.
Dadlez, R.:
Mesozoic thickness pattern in the Mid-Polish Trough, Geol. Q., 47, 223–240, 2003.
Dadlez, R., Narkiewicz, M., Stephenson, R. A., Visser, M. T. M., and van Wees, J. D.:
Tectonic evolution of the Mid-Polish Trough: modelling implications and significance for central European geology, Tectonophysics, 252, 179–195, https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(95)00104-2, 1995.
Davis, J. C.:
Statistics and data analysis in geology, 3rd edn., Wiley, New York, ISBN 978-0-471-17275-8, 656 pp., 2002.
Davison, I., Alsop, G. I., Evans, N. G., and Safaricz, M.:
Overburden deformation patterns and mechanisms of salt diapir penetration in the Central Graben, North Sea, Mar. Petrol. Geol., 17, 601–618, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8172(00)00011-8, 2000.
De Berg, M., Cheong, O., Van Kreveld, M., and Overmars, M.:
Computational Geometry: Algorithms and Applications, 3rd edn., Springer, 364 pp., https://doi.org/10.2307/3620533, 2008.
Di, H. and Gao, D.:
3D Seismic Flexure Analysis for Subsurface Fault Detection and Fracture Characterization, Pure Appl. Geophys., 174, 747–761, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-016-1406-9, 2017.
Doornenbal, J. C., Abbink, O. A., Pagnier, H. J. M., and Van Wees, J. D.:
Petroleum geological atlas of the southern permian basin area -Overview SPB-atlas project-organisation and results, in: Tunis 2009 – 4th North African/Mediterranean Petroleum and Geosciences Conference and Exhibition, 2–4 March 2009, Tunis, Tunisia, https://doi.org/10.3997/2214-4609.20145798, 2009.
Erlström, M., Thomas, S. A., Deeks, N., and Sivhed, U.:
Structure and tectonic evolution of the Tornquist Zone and adjacent sedimentary basins in Scania and the southern Baltic Sea area, Tectonophysics, 271, 191–215, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(96)00247-8, 1997.
Erratt, D., Thomas, G. M., and Wall, G. R. T.:
The evolution of the Central North sea rift, in: Petroleum Geology Conference Proceedings, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 63–82, https://doi.org/10.1144/0050063, 1999.
Evans, D., Graham, C., Armour, A., and Bathurst, P.:
The Millennium Atlas: Petroleum Geology of the Central and Northern North Sea, The Geological Society of London, London, ISBN 10 186239119X, ISBN 13 9781862391192, 2003.
Fisher, N. I.:
Statistical analysis of circular data, Cambridge University Press, 277 pp., https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511564345, 1993.
Fisher, N. I., Huntington, J. F., Jacket, D. R., Willcox, M. E., and Creasey, J. W.:
Spatial analysis of two-dimensional orientation data., J. Int. Ass. Math. Geol., 17, 177–194, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01033153, 1985.
Fossen, H.:
Structural geology, 2nd edn., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 10 1107057647, ISBN 13 978-1107057647, 2006.
Fossen, H., Khani, H. F., Faleide, J. I., Ksienzyk, A. K., and Dunlap, W. J.:
Post-Caledonian extension in the West Norway-northern North Sea region: The role of structural inheritance, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 439, 465–486, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP439.6, 2017.
Frederiksen, S., Nielsen, S. B., and Balling, N.:
Post-Permian evolution of the Central North Sea: A numerical model, Tectonophysics, 343, 185–203, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(01)00224-4, 2001.
Frey, P. J. and Borouchaki, H.:
Surface mesh quality evaluation, Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng., 45, 101–118, https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0207(19990510)45:1<101::AID-NME582>3.0.CO;2-4, 1999.
Geluk, M. C.:
Late Permian (Zechstein) carbonate-facies maps, the Netherlands, Neth. J. Geosci., 79, 17–27, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016774600021545, 2000.
Graversen, O.:
A structural transect between the central North Sea Dome andthe South Swedish Dome: Middle Jurassic – quaternary uplift – subsidence reversal and exhumation across the eastern North Sea Basin, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 196, 67–83, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.196.01.05, 2002.
Groshong, R. H.:
3-D Structural Geology, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 400 pp., https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-31055-6, 2006.
Hammah, R. E. and Curran, J. H.:
On distance measures for the fuzzy K-means algorithm for joint data, Rock Mech. Rock Eng., 32, 1–27, https://doi.org/10.1007/s006030050041, 1999.
Hansen, D. L., Nielsen, S. B., and Lykke-Andersen, H.:
The post-Triassic evolution of the Sorgenfrei–Tornquist Zone – Results from thermo-mechanical modelling, Tectonophysics, 328, 245–267, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00216-X, 2000.
Harding, T. P. and Tuminas, A. C.:
Structural interpretation of hydrocarbon traps sealed by basement normal block faults at stable flank of foredeep basins and at rift basins, Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol. B., 73, 812–840, https://doi.org/10.1306/44b4a276-170a-11d7-8645000102c1865d, 1989.
Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R., and Friedman, J.:
The Elements of Statistical Learning – Data Mining, Inference and Prediction, Springer New York, NY, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-84858-7, 2009.
Heeremans, M., Faleide, J. I., and Larsen, B. T.:
Late Carboniferous-Permian of NW Europe: An introduction to a new regional map, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 223, 75, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2004.223.01.04, 2004.
Hornik, K., Feinerer, I., Kober, M., and Buchta, C.:
Spherical k-means clustering, J. Stat. Softw., 50, 1–22, https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v050.i10, 2012.
James, G., Witten, D., Hastie, T., and Tibshirani, R.:
An Introduction to Statistical Learning with Applications in R, Springer, New York, 426 pp., https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7138-7, 2013.
Jarosiński, M., Poprawa, P., and Ziegler, P. A.:
Cenozoic dynamic evolution of the Polish Platform, Geol. Q., 53, 3–26, 2009.
Johnson, P. A., Rouet-Leduc, B., Pyrak-Nolte, L. J., Beroza, G. C., Marone, C. J., Hulbert, C., Howard, A., Singer, P., Gordeev, D., Karaflos, D., Levinson, C. J., Pfeiffer, P., Puk, K. M., and Reade, W.:
Laboratory earthquake forecasting: A machine learning competition, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 118, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2011362118, 2021.
Kania, M. and Szczęch, M.:
Geometry and topology of tectonolineaments in the Gorce Mts. (Outer Carpathians) in Poland, J. Struct. Geol., 141, 104186, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2020.104186, 2020.
Karlo, J. F., Van Buchem, F. S. P., Moen, J., and Milroy, K.:
Triassic-age salt tectonics of the Central North Sea, Interpretation, 2, SM19–SM28, https://doi.org/10.1190/INT-2014-0032.1, 2014.
Karnkowski, P. H.:
Regionalizacja tektoniczna Polski – Niż Polski, Prz. Geol., 56, 895–903, 2008.
Kockel, F.:
Rifting processes in NW-Germany and the German North Sea sector, Neth. J. Geosci., 81, 149–158, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016774600022381, 2002.
Kopik, J.:
Lower and Middle Jurassic of the north-eastern margin of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (in Polish with English summary), Biul. Państwowego Inst. Geol., 378, 67–129, 1998.
Krokowski, J.:
Mezoskopowe studia strukturalne w osadach permsko-mezozoicznych południowo-wschodniej części Wyżyny Śląsko–Krakowskiej, Ann. Soc. Geol. Pol., 54, 79–121, 1984.
Krzywiec, P.:
Triassic evolution of the Kłodawa salt structure: Basement-controlled salt tectonics within the Mid-Polish Trough (Central Poland), Geol. Q., 48, 123–134, 2004.
Krzywiec, P.:
Triassic-Jurassic evolution of the Pomeranian segment of the Mid-Polish Trough – Basement tectonics and subsidence patterns, Geol. Q., 50, 139–150, 2006.
Krzywiec, P.:
Mesozoic and Cenozoic evolution of salt structures within: The Polish Basin: An overview, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 363, 381–394, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP363.17, 2012.
Krzywiec, P., Kufrasa, M., Poprawa, P., Mazur, S., Koperska, M., and Ślemp, P.:
Together but separate: decoupled Variscan (late Carboniferous) and Alpine (Late Cretaceous–Paleogene) inversion tectonics in NW Poland, Solid Earth, 13, 639–658, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-639-2022, 2022.
Kuhn, S., Cracknell, M. J., and Reading, A. M.:
Lithologic mapping using Random Forests applied to geophysical and remote-sensing data: A demonstration study from the Eastern Goldfields of Australia, Geophysics, 83, B183–B193, https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2017-0590.1, 2018.
Kutek, J. and Głazek, J.:
The Holy Cross area, central Poland, in the Alpine cycle, Acta Geol. Pol., 22, 603–651, 1972.
Kyrkjebø, R., Gabrielsen, R. H., and Faleide, J. I.:
Unconformities related to the Jurassic-Cretaceous synrift-post-rift transition of the northern North Sea, J. Geol. Soc. London, 161, 1–17, https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-764903-051, 2004.
Lamarche, J. and Scheck-Wenderoth, M.:
3D structural model of the Polish Basin, Tectonophysics, 397, 73–91, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2004.10.013, 2005.
Lassen, A. and Thybo, H.:
Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic evolution of SW Scandinavia based on integrated seismic interpretation, Precambrian Res., 204, 75–104, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2012.01.008, 2012.
Matyszkiewicz, J. and Krajewski, M.:
Lithology and sedimentation of Upper Jurassic massive limestones near Bolechowice, Kraków-Wieluń Upland, south Poland, Ann. Soc. Geol. Pol., 66, 285–301, 1996.
Maystrenko, Y., Bayer, U., and Scheck-Wenderoth, M.:
The Glueckstadt Graben, a sedimentary record between the North and Baltic Sea in north Central Europe, Tectonophysics, 397, 113–126, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2004.10.004, 2005.
Maystrenko, Y., Bayer, U., and Scheck-Wenderoth, M.:
3D reconstruction of salt movements within the deepest post-Permian structure of the Central European Basin System – The Glueckstadt Graben, Neth. J. Geosci., 85, 181–196, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016774600021466, 2006.
Maystrenko, Y., Bayer, U., Brink, H. J., and Littke, R.:
The central european basin system-An overview, in: Dynamics of Complex Sedimentary Basins. The Example of the Central European Basin System, edited by: Littke, R., Bayer, U., Gajewski, D., and Nelskamp, S., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 307–322, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-85085-4_2, 2008.
Maystrenko, Y. P. and Scheck-Wenderoth, M.:
3D lithosphere-scale density model of the Central European Basin System and adjacent areas, Tectonophysics, 601, 53–77, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2013.04.023, 2013.
Maystrenko, Y. P., Bayer, U., and Scheck-Wenderoth, M.:
Regional-scale structural role of permian salt within the Central European Basin System, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 363, 409–430, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP363.19, 2012.
Maystrenko, Y. P., Bayer, U., and Scheck-Wenderoth, M.:
Salt as a 3D element in structural modeling – Example from the central european basin system, Tectonophysics, 591, 62–82, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.06.030, 2013.
Maystrenko, Y. P., Scheck-Wenderoth, M., and Anikiev, D.:
3D-CEBS: Three-dimensional lithospheric-scale structural model of the Central European Basin System and adjacent areas, GFZ Data Services, Potsdam, https://doi.org/10.5880/GFZ.4.5.2020.006, 2020.
Mazur, S., Scheck-Wenderoth, M., and Krzywiec, P.:
Different modes of the Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary inversion in the North German and Polish basins, Int. J. Earth Sci., 94, 782–798, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-005-0016-z, 2005.
Mazur, S., Mikolajczak, M., Krzywiec, P., Malinowski, M., Lewandowski, M., and Buffenmyer, V.:
Pomeranian Caledonides, NW Poland – A collisional suture or thin-skinned fold-and-thrust belt?, Tectonophysics, 692, 29–43, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2016.06.017, 2016.
Mazur, S., Malinowski, M., Maystrenko, Y. P., and Gągała, Ł.:
Pre-existing lithospheric weak zone and its impact on continental rifting – The Mid-Polish Trough, Central European Basin System, Global Planet. Change, 198, 103417, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103417, 2021.
McLellan, M. and Audet, P.:
Uncovering the physical controls of deep subduction zone slow slip using supervised classification of subducting plate features, Geophys. J. Int., 223, 94–110, https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggaa285, 2020.
Medhus, A. B., Balling, N., Jacobsen, B. H., Weidle, C., England, R. W., Kind, R., Thybo, H., and Voss, P.:
Upper-mantle structure beneath the Southern Scandes Mountains and the Northern Tornquist Zone revealed by P-wave traveltime tomography, Geophys. J. Int., 189, 1315–1334, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2012.05449.x, 2012.
Michalak, M.:
Numerical limitations of the attainment of the orientation of geological planes, Open Geosci., 10, 395–402, https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2018-0031, 2018.
Michalak, M.:
Clustering has a meaning: optimization of angular similarity to detect geometric anomalies in geological terrains – Input and processed data, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6405496, 2021a.
Michalak, M.:
GeoAnomalia, GitHub [code], https://github.com/michalmichalak997/SurfaceCompare/blob/master/orientation_maps.cpp (last access: 27 October 2022), 2021b.
Michalak, M. P., Bardziński, W., Teper, L., and Małolepszy, Z.:
Using Delaunay triangulation and cluster analysis to determine the orientation of a sub-horizontal and noise including contact in Kraków–Silesian Homocline, Poland, Comput. Geosci., 133, 104322, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2019.104322, 2019.
Michalak, M. P., Kuzak, R., Gładki, P., Kulawik, A., and Ge, Y.:
Constraining uncertainty of fault orientation using a combinatorial algorithm, Comput. Geosci., 154, 104777, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2021.104777, 2021.
Mizerski, W.:
Geologia Polski, VI., PWN, Warszawa, 312 pp., ISBN 978-83-01-21242-1, 2020.
Mogensen, T. E. and Jensen, L. N.:
Cretaceous subsidence and inversion along the Tornquist Zone from Kattegat to the Egersund Basin, First Break, 12, 211–222, https://doi.org/10.3997/1365-2397.1994016, 1994.
Møller, J. J. and Rasmussen, E. S.:
Middle Jurassic–Early Cretaceous rifting of the Danish Central Graben, Geol. Surv. Den. Greenl., 1, 247–264, https://doi.org/10.34194/geusb.v1.4654, 2003.
Narkiewicz, M.:
Geologiczna historia Polski, Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa, 279 pp., https://doi.org/10.31338/uw.9788323542667, 2020.
NITG: Geological Atlas of the Netherlands – onshore (1:1 000 000), Netherlands Institute for Applied Geoscience TNO – National Geological Survey, Utrecht, 2004.
Odinsen, T., Christiansson, P., Gabrielsen, R. H., Faleide, J. I., and Berge, A. M.:
The geometries and deep structure of the northern North Sea rift system, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 167, 41–57, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.167.01.03, 2000.
Osika, R., Pożaryski, W., Rühle, E., and Znosko, J.:
Geological map of Poland without Cainozoic formations, 1:500 000, Wydawnictwa Geologiczne, Warszawa, 1972.
Otto, V.:
Inversion-related features along the southeastern margin of the North German Basin (Elbe Fault System), Tectonophysics, 373, 107–123, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(03)00287-7, 2003.
PGS: North Sea Digital Atlas – Version 2.0 (NSDA-2.0), GS Reservoir, Berks, UK, 2003.
Phillips, T. B., Fazlikhani, H., Gawthorpe, R. L., Fossen, H., Jackson, C. A. L., Bell, R. E., Faleide, J. I., and Rotevatn, A.:
The Influence of Structural Inheritance and Multiphase Extension on Rift Development, the Northern North Sea, Tectonics, 38, 4099–4126, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019TC005756, 2019.
Plein, E.:
The southern Permian Basin and its paleogeography, in: The Southern Permian Basin and its Paleogeography, in: Sediments and Environmental Geochemistry, edited by: Heling D., Rothe P., Förstner U., Stoffers P., Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 124–133, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-75097-7_7, 1990.
Rank-Friend, M. and Elders, C. F.:
The Evolution and Growth of Central Graben Salt Structures, Salt Dome Province, Danish North Sea, Geol. Soc. Mem., 29, 149, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.MEM.2004.029.01.15, 2004.
Roberts, A.:
Curvature attributes and their application to 3D interpreted horizons, First Break, 19, 85–100, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0263-5046.2001.00142.x, 2001.
Rousseeuw, P. J.:
Silhouettes: a graphical aid to the interpretation and validation of cluster analysis, J. Comput. Appl. Math., 20, 53–65, 1987.
Scheck, M., Bayer, U., Otto, V., Lamarche, J., Banka, D., and Pharaoh, T. T.:
The Elbe fault system in North Central Europe- a basement controlled zone of crustal weakness, Tectonophysics, 360, 281–299, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00357-8, 2002.
Scheck, M., Bayer, U., and Lewerenz, B.:
Salt movement in the Northeast German Basin and its relation to major post-Permian tectonic phases – results from 3D structural modelling, backstripping and reflection seismic data, Tectonophysics, 361, 277–299, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00650-9, 2003.
Scheck-Wenderoth, M. and Lamarche, J.:
Crustal memory and basin evolution in the Central European Basin System – New insights from a 3D structural model, Tectonophysics, 397, 143–165, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2004.10.007, 2005.
Schneeberger, R., de La Varga, M., Egli, D., Berger, A., Kober, F., Wellmann, F., and Herwegh, M.:
Methods and uncertainty estimations of 3-D structural modelling in crystalline rocks: a case study, Solid Earth, 8, 987–1002, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-8-987-2017, 2017.
Seydoux, L., Balestriero, R., Poli, P., Hoop, M. de, Campillo, M., and Baraniuk, R.:
Clustering earthquake signals and background noises in continuous seismic data with unsupervised deep learning, Nat. Commun., 11, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17841-x, 2020.
Słonka, Ł. and Krzywiec, P.:
Upper Jurassic carbonate buildups in the Miechów Trough, southern Poland – insights from seismic data interpretations, Solid Earth, 11, 1097–1119, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-1097-2020, 2020.
Srinivasan, G., Hyman, J. D., Osthus, D. A., Moore, B. A., O'Malley, D., Karra, S., Rougier, E., Hagberg, A. A., Hunter, A., and Viswanathan, H. S.:
Quantifying Topological Uncertainty in Fractured Systems using Graph Theory and Machine Learning, Sci. Rep.-UK, 8, 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-30117-1, 2018.
Stemmerik, L., Ineson, J. R., and Mitchell, J. G.:
Stratigraphy of the Rotliegend group in the Danish part of the Northern Permian Basin, North Sea, J. Geol. Soc. London, 157, 1127–1136, https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs.157.6.1127, 2000.
Stupnicka, E. and Stempień-Sałek, M.:
Geologia regionalna Polski, Wydawn. Uniw. Warszawskiego, Warszawa, https://doi.org/10.31338/uw.9788323522515, 2016.
Thiele, S. T., Jessell, M. W., Lindsay, M., Ogarko, V., Wellmann, J. F., and Pakyuz-Charrier, E.:
The topology of geology 1: Topological analysis, J. Struct. Geol., 91, 27–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2016.08.009, 2016.
Trusheim, F.:
Mechanism of Salt Migration in Northern Germany, Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol. B., 44, 1519–1540, 1960.
Usaityte, D.:
The geology of the southeastern Baltic Sea: A review, Earth Sci. Rev., 50, 137–225, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(00)00002-7, 2000.
Valera, M., Guo, Z., Kelly, P., Matz, S., Cantu, V. A., Percus, A. G., Hyman, J. D., Srinivasan, G., and Viswanathan, H. S.:
Machine learning for graph-based representations of three-dimensional discrete fracture networks, Comput. Geosci., 22, 695–710, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10596-018-9720-1, 2018.
Vejbæk, O. V.:
The Horn Graben, and its relationship to the Oslo Graben and the Danish Basin, Tectonophysics, 178, 29–49, https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(90)90458-K, 1990.
Vejbæk, O. V. and Andersen, C.:
Post mid-cretaceous inversion tectonics in the Danish Central Graben – regionally synchronous tectonic events?, B. Geol. Soc. Denmark, 49, 129–144, https://doi.org/10.37570/bgsd-2003-49-11, 2002.
Voigt, T., Reicherter, K., von Eynatten, H., Littke, R., Voigt, S., and Kley, J.:
Sedimentation during basin inversion, in: Dynamics of Complex Sedimentary Basins. The Example of the Central European Basin System, edited by: Littke, R., Bayer, U., Gajewski, D., and Nelskamp, S., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 211–232, ISBN 978-3-540-85085-4, 2008.
Wang, Y., Ksienzyk, A. K., Liu, M., and Brönner, M.:
Multi-geophysical data integration using cluster analysis: Assisting geological mapping in Trøndelag, Mid-Norway, Geophys. J. Int., 225, 1142–1157, https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggaa571, 2020.
Warsitzka, M., Jähne-Klingberg, F., Kley, J., and Kukowski, N.:
The timing of salt structure growth in the Southern Permian Basin (Central Europe) and implications for basin dynamics, Basin Res., 31, 337–360, https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12323, 2019.
Wiest, J. D., Wrona, T., Bauck, M. S., Fossen, H., Gawthorpe, R. L., Osmundsen, P. T., and Faleide, J. I.:
From Caledonian Collapse to North Sea Rift: The Extended History of a Metamorphic Core Complex, Tectonics, 39, e2020TC006178, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020TC006178, 2020.
Xiong, Y. and Zuo, R.:
A positive and unlabeled learning algorithm for mineral prospectivity mapping, Comput. Geosci., 147, 104667, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2020.104667, 2021.
Yvinec, M.:
2D Triangulation, https://doc.cgal.org/latest/Manual/packages.html#PkgTriangulation2 (last access: 27 October 2022), The CGAL project, 2021.
Zakrzewski, M.:
Charakterystyka geologiczna spągowego poziomu rud syderytowych w obszarze częstochowskim, Wydawnictwa Geologiczne, Warszawa, 61 pp., 1976.
Zhan, J., Chen, J., Xu, P., Zhang, W., Han, X., and Zhou, X.:
Automatic Identification of Rock Fracture Sets Using Finite Mixture Models, Math. Geosci., 49, 1021–1056, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11004-017-9702-1, 2017a.
Zhan, J., Xu, P., Chen, J., Wang, Q., Zhang, W., and Han, X.:
Comprehensive characterization and clustering of orientation data: A case study from the Songta dam site, China, Eng. Geol., 225, 3–18, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.01.010, 2017b.
Zhang, D., Li, Y., and Zhang, Z.:
Deep metric learning with spherical embedding, in: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 33, 18772–18783, 2020.
Ziegler, P. A.:
Collision related intra-plate compression deformations in Western and Central Europe, J. Geodyn., 11, 357–388, https://doi.org/10.1016/0264-3707(90)90017-O, 1990a.
Ziegler, P. A.:
Geological Atlas of western and central Europe, Shell International Petroleum Maatschappij BV, The Hague, the Netherlands, 1990b.
Short summary
When characterizing geological/geophysical surfaces, various geometric attributes are calculated, such as dip angle (1D) or dip direction (2D). However, the boundaries between specific values may be subjective and without optimization significance, resulting from using default color palletes. This study proposes minimizing cosine distance among within-cluster observations to detect 3D anomalies. Our results suggest that the method holds promise for identification of megacylinders or megacones.
When characterizing geological/geophysical surfaces, various geometric attributes are...
