Articles | Volume 10, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1219-2019
© Author(s) 2019. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1219-2019
© Author(s) 2019. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
29 Jul 2019
Research article |
| 29 Jul 2019
| 29 Jul 2019
Distinct element geomechanical modelling of the formation of sinkhole clusters within large-scale karstic depressions
Djamil Al-Halbouni
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Helmholtz Centre – German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ),
Physics of Earthquakes and Volcanoes, Telegrafenberg, Potsdam,
Germany
University of Potsdam, Institute of Geosciences, P.O. Box 601553,
Potsdam–Golm, Germany
Eoghan P. Holohan
UCD School of Earth Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield,
Dublin, Ireland
Abbas Taheri
School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of
Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Robert A. Watson
UCD School of Earth Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield,
Dublin, Ireland
Ulrich Polom
Department S1 – Seismics, Gravimetry, and Magnetics, Leibnitz Institute for Applied Geophysics (LIAG), Stilleweg 2,
Hanover, Germany
Martin P. J. Schöpfer
Department for Geodynamics and Sedimentology, University of Vienna,
Athanstrasse 14, Vienna, Austria
Sacha Emam
Geomechanics and Software Engineer, Itasca Consultants S.A.S,
Écully, France
Torsten Dahm
Helmholtz Centre – German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ),
Physics of Earthquakes and Volcanoes, Telegrafenberg, Potsdam,
Germany
University of Potsdam, Institute of Geosciences, P.O. Box 601553,
Potsdam–Golm, Germany
Related authors
Djamil Al-Halbouni, Robert A. Watson, Eoghan P. Holohan, Rena Meyer, Ulrich Polom, Fernando M. Dos Santos, Xavier Comas, Hussam Alrshdan, Charlotte M. Krawczyk, and Torsten Dahm
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 3351–3395, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-3351-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-3351-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The rapid decline of the Dead Sea level since the 1960s has provoked a dynamic reaction from the coastal groundwater system, with physical and chemical erosion creating subsurface voids and conduits. By combining remote sensing, geophysical methods, and numerical modelling at the Dead Sea’s eastern shore, we link groundwater flow patterns to the formation of surface stream channels, sinkholes and uvalas. Better understanding of this karst system will improve regional hazard assessment.
Robert A. Watson, Eoghan P. Holohan, Djamil Al-Halbouni, Leila Saberi, Ali Sawarieh, Damien Closson, Hussam Alrshdan, Najib Abou Karaki, Christian Siebert, Thomas R. Walter, and Torsten Dahm
Solid Earth, 10, 1451–1468, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1451-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1451-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The fall of the Dead Sea level since the 1960s has provoked the formation of over 6000 sinkholes, a major hazard to local economy and infrastructure. In this context, we study the evolution of subsidence phenomena at three area scales at the Dead Sea’s eastern shore from 1967–2017. Our results yield the most detailed insights to date into the spatio-temporal development of sinkholes and larger depressions (uvalas) in an evaporite karst setting and emphasize a link to the falling Dead Sea level.
Djamil Al-Halbouni, Eoghan P. Holohan, Abbas Taheri, Martin P. J. Schöpfer, Sacha Emam, and Torsten Dahm
Solid Earth, 9, 1341–1373, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1341-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1341-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Sinkholes are round depression features in the ground that can cause high economic and life loss. On the Dead Sea shoreline, hundreds of sinkholes form each year driven by the fall of the water level and subsequent out-washing and dissolution of loose sediments. This study investigates the mechanical formation of sinkholes by numerical modelling. It highlights the role of material strength in the formation of dangerous collapse sinkholes and compares it to findings from a field site in Jordan.
Ulrich Polom, Hussam Alrshdan, Djamil Al-Halbouni, Eoghan P. Holohan, Torsten Dahm, Ali Sawarieh, Mohamad Y. Atallah, and Charlotte M. Krawczyk
Solid Earth, 9, 1079–1098, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1079-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1079-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The alluvial fan of Ghor Al-Haditha (Dead Sea) is affected by subsidence and sinkholes. Different models and hypothetical processes have been suggested in the past; high-resolution shear wave reflection surveys carried out in 2013 and 2014 showed the absence of evidence for a massive shallow salt layer as formerly suggested. Thus, a new process interpretation is proposed based on both the dissolution and physical erosion of Dead Sea mud layers.
D. Al-Halbouni
Solid Earth Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/sed-5-1031-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/sed-5-1031-2013, 2013
Preprint withdrawn
Aileen L. Doran, Victoria Dutch, Bridget Warren, Robert A. Watson, Kevin Murphy, Angus Aldis, Isabelle Cooper, Charlotte Cockram, Dyess Harp, Morgane Desmau, and Lydia Keppler
Geosci. Commun., 7, 227–244, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-7-227-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-7-227-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In recent years, we have seen a global change in how we communicate, with an unplanned shift to virtual platforms, leading to inadvertent exclusion during online events. This article aims to provide guidance on planning online/hybrid events from an accessibility viewpoint, based on the combined experiences of several groups and individuals. Nevertheless, this is not a fully comprehensive guide, as every event is unique and has its own accessibility design needs.
Sonja H. Wadas, Hermann Buness, Raphael Rochlitz, Peter Skiba, Thomas Günther, Michael Grinat, David C. Tanner, Ulrich Polom, Gerald Gabriel, and Charlotte M. Krawczyk
Solid Earth, 13, 1673–1696, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1673-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1673-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The dissolution of rocks poses a severe hazard because it can cause subsidence and sinkhole formation. Based on results from our study area in Thuringia, Germany, using P- and SH-wave reflection seismics, electrical resistivity and electromagnetic methods, and gravimetry, we develop a geophysical investigation workflow. This workflow enables identifying the initial triggers of subsurface dissolution and its control factors, such as structural constraints, fluid pathways, and mass movement.
Tomáš Fischer, Pavla Hrubcová, Torsten Dahm, Heiko Woith, Tomáš Vylita, Matthias Ohrnberger, Josef Vlček, Josef Horálek, Petr Dědeček, Martin Zimmer, Martin P. Lipus, Simona Pierdominici, Jens Kallmeyer, Frank Krüger, Katrin Hannemann, Michael Korn, Horst Kämpf, Thomas Reinsch, Jakub Klicpera, Daniel Vollmer, and Kyriaki Daskalopoulou
Sci. Dril., 31, 31–49, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-31-31-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-31-31-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The newly established geodynamic laboratory aims to develop modern, comprehensive, multiparameter observations at depth for studying earthquake swarms, crustal fluid flow, mantle-derived fluid degassing and processes of the deep biosphere. It is located in the West Bohemia–Vogtland (western Eger Rift) geodynamic region and comprises a set of five shallow boreholes with high-frequency 3-D seismic arrays as well as continuous real-time fluid monitoring at depth and the study of the deep biosphere.
Djamil Al-Halbouni, Robert A. Watson, Eoghan P. Holohan, Rena Meyer, Ulrich Polom, Fernando M. Dos Santos, Xavier Comas, Hussam Alrshdan, Charlotte M. Krawczyk, and Torsten Dahm
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 3351–3395, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-3351-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-3351-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The rapid decline of the Dead Sea level since the 1960s has provoked a dynamic reaction from the coastal groundwater system, with physical and chemical erosion creating subsurface voids and conduits. By combining remote sensing, geophysical methods, and numerical modelling at the Dead Sea’s eastern shore, we link groundwater flow patterns to the formation of surface stream channels, sinkholes and uvalas. Better understanding of this karst system will improve regional hazard assessment.
Gesa Maria Petersen, Simone Cesca, Sebastian Heimann, Peter Niemz, Torsten Dahm, Daniela Kühn, Jörn Kummerow, Thomas Plenefisch, and the AlpArray and AlpArray-Swath-D working groups
Solid Earth, 12, 1233–1257, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-1233-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-1233-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The Alpine mountains are known for a complex tectonic history. We shed light onto ongoing tectonic processes by studying rupture mechanisms of small to moderate earthquakes between 2016 and 2019 observed by the temporary AlpArray seismic network. The rupture processes of 75 earthquakes were analyzed, along with past earthquakes and deformation data. Our observations point at variations in the underlying tectonic processes and stress regimes across the Alps.
Camilla Rossi, Francesco Grigoli, Simone Cesca, Sebastian Heimann, Paolo Gasperini, Vala Hjörleifsdóttir, Torsten Dahm, Christopher J. Bean, Stefan Wiemer, Luca Scarabello, Nima Nooshiri, John F. Clinton, Anne Obermann, Kristján Ágústsson, and Thorbjörg Ágústsdóttir
Adv. Geosci., 54, 129–136, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-54-129-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-54-129-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the microseismicity occurred at Hengill area, a complex tectonic and geothermal site, where the origin of earthquakes may be either natural or anthropogenic. We use a very dense broadband seismic monitoring network and apply full-waveform based method for location. Our results and first characterization identified different types of microseismic clusters, which might be associated to either production/injection or the tectonic activity of the geothermal area.
Marco Broccardo, Arnaud Mignan, Francesco Grigoli, Dimitrios Karvounis, Antonio Pio Rinaldi, Laurentiu Danciu, Hannes Hofmann, Claus Milkereit, Torsten Dahm, Günter Zimmermann, Vala Hjörleifsdóttir, and Stefan Wiemer
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 1573–1593, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-1573-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-1573-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents a first-of-its-kind pre-drilling probabilistic induced seismic risk analysis for the Geldinganes (Iceland) deep-hydraulic stimulation. The results of the assessment indicate that the individual risk within a radius of 2 km around the injection point is below the safety limits. However, the analysis is affected by a large variability due to the presence of pre-drilling deep uncertainties. This suggests the need for online risk updating during the stimulation.
Mohammadreza Jamalreyhani, Pınar Büyükakpınar, Simone Cesca, Torsten Dahm, Henriette Sudhaus, Mehdi Rezapour, Marius Paul Isken, Behnam Maleki Asayesh, and Sebastian Heimann
Solid Earth Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/se-2020-55, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-2020-55, 2020
Revised manuscript not accepted
Short summary
Short summary
We model the source of the 24 January 2020 Mw 6.77 Elazığ-Sivrice (Turkey) earthquake using a combination of different data and we analyzed its seismic sequences. This earthquake occurred in the east Anatolian fault and it has filled the large part of the former seismic gap zone. An unbroken part has left after this earthquake and has the potential to host a future earthquake. This work provides information about the fault system and helps to the mitigation of seismic hazard in Southern Turkey.
Sebastian Heimann, Hannes Vasyura-Bathke, Henriette Sudhaus, Marius Paul Isken, Marius Kriegerowski, Andreas Steinberg, and Torsten Dahm
Solid Earth, 10, 1921–1935, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1921-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1921-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We present an open-source software framework for fast and flexible forward modelling of seismic and acoustic wave phenomena and elastic deformation. It supports a wide range of applications across volcanology, seismology, and geodesy to study earthquakes, volcanic processes, landslides, explosions, mine collapses, ground shaking, and aseismic faulting. The framework stimulates reproducible research and open science through the exchange of pre-calculated Green's functions on an open platform.
Robert A. Watson, Eoghan P. Holohan, Djamil Al-Halbouni, Leila Saberi, Ali Sawarieh, Damien Closson, Hussam Alrshdan, Najib Abou Karaki, Christian Siebert, Thomas R. Walter, and Torsten Dahm
Solid Earth, 10, 1451–1468, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1451-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1451-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The fall of the Dead Sea level since the 1960s has provoked the formation of over 6000 sinkholes, a major hazard to local economy and infrastructure. In this context, we study the evolution of subsidence phenomena at three area scales at the Dead Sea’s eastern shore from 1967–2017. Our results yield the most detailed insights to date into the spatio-temporal development of sinkholes and larger depressions (uvalas) in an evaporite karst setting and emphasize a link to the falling Dead Sea level.
Marius Kriegerowski, Simone Cesca, Matthias Ohrnberger, Torsten Dahm, and Frank Krüger
Solid Earth, 10, 317–328, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-317-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-317-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We developed a method that allows to estimate the acoustic attenuation of seismic waves within regions with high earthquake source densities. Attenuation is of high interest as it allows to draw conclusions on the origin of seismic activity. We apply our method to north-west Bohemia, which is regularly affected by earthquake swarms during which thousands of earthquakes are registered within a few days. We find reduced attenuation within the active volume, which may indicate high fluid content.
Peter Gaebler, Lars Ceranna, Nima Nooshiri, Andreas Barth, Simone Cesca, Michaela Frei, Ilona Grünberg, Gernot Hartmann, Karl Koch, Christoph Pilger, J. Ole Ross, and Torsten Dahm
Solid Earth, 10, 59–78, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-59-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-59-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
On 3 September 2017 official channels of the Democratic People’s Republic of
Korea announced the successful test of a nuclear device. This study provides a
multi-technology analysis of the 2017 North Korean event and its aftermath using a wide array of geophysical methods (seismology, infrasound, remote sensing, radionuclide monitoring, and atmospheric transport modeling). Our results clearly indicate that the September 2017 North Korean event was in fact a nuclear test.
Djamil Al-Halbouni, Eoghan P. Holohan, Abbas Taheri, Martin P. J. Schöpfer, Sacha Emam, and Torsten Dahm
Solid Earth, 9, 1341–1373, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1341-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1341-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Sinkholes are round depression features in the ground that can cause high economic and life loss. On the Dead Sea shoreline, hundreds of sinkholes form each year driven by the fall of the water level and subsequent out-washing and dissolution of loose sediments. This study investigates the mechanical formation of sinkholes by numerical modelling. It highlights the role of material strength in the formation of dangerous collapse sinkholes and compares it to findings from a field site in Jordan.
Ulrich Polom, Hussam Alrshdan, Djamil Al-Halbouni, Eoghan P. Holohan, Torsten Dahm, Ali Sawarieh, Mohamad Y. Atallah, and Charlotte M. Krawczyk
Solid Earth, 9, 1079–1098, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1079-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1079-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The alluvial fan of Ghor Al-Haditha (Dead Sea) is affected by subsidence and sinkholes. Different models and hypothetical processes have been suggested in the past; high-resolution shear wave reflection surveys carried out in 2013 and 2014 showed the absence of evidence for a massive shallow salt layer as formerly suggested. Thus, a new process interpretation is proposed based on both the dissolution and physical erosion of Dead Sea mud layers.
Sonja H. Wadas, David C. Tanner, Ulrich Polom, and Charlotte M. Krawczyk
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 2335–2350, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-2335-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-2335-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
In 2010 a sinkhole opened up in the urban area of Schmalkalden, Germany. Shear-wave reflection seismic profiles were carried out around the sinkhole to investigate the reasons for the collapse. A strike-slip fault and a fracture network were identified that serve as fluid pathways for water-leaching soluble rocks near the surface. The more complex the fault geometry and interaction between faults, the more prone an area is to sinkhole occurrence.
Sonja H. Wadas, Ulrich Polom, and Charlotte M. Krawczyk
Solid Earth, 7, 1491–1508, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-7-1491-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-7-1491-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Subrosion is the subsurface leaching of soluble rocks. It is a global phenomenon and a geohazard in urban areas because it causes depressions and sinkholes. This is the case in the study area, the town of Bad Frankenhausen, in northern Thuringia, Germany. Using shear-wave seismic reflection we are able to image these structures at high resolution to a depth of ca. 100 m. We observe that the underground is strongly fractured and there are indications of cavities.
T. Dahm, P. Hrubcová, T. Fischer, J. Horálek, M. Korn, S. Buske, and D. Wagner
Sci. Dril., 16, 93–99, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-16-93-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-16-93-2013, 2013
D. Al-Halbouni
Solid Earth Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/sed-5-1031-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/sed-5-1031-2013, 2013
Preprint withdrawn
Related subject area
Subject area: The evolving Earth surface | Editorial team: Rock deformation, geomorphology, morphotectonics, and paleoseismology | Discipline: Geomorphology
Determining the Plio-Quaternary uplift of the southern French Massif Central; a new insight for intraplate orogen dynamics
Spatio-temporal dynamics of sediment transfer systems in landslide-prone Alpine catchments
Sinkholes and uvalas in evaporite karst: spatio-temporal development with links to base-level fall on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea
Oswald Malcles, Philippe Vernant, Jean Chéry, Pierre Camps, Gaël Cazes, Jean-François Ritz, and David Fink
Solid Earth, 11, 241–258, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-241-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-241-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We aim to better understand the challenging areas that are the intraplate regions using one example: the southern French Massif Central and its numerous hundreds of meters deep valleys. We apply a multidisciplinary approach there using geomorphology, geochronology, and numerical modeling.
Our dating results show that the canyon incisions are part of the Plio-Quaternary evolution with incision rate of ~ 80 m Ma−1. We propose then that this incision is possible due to an active regional uplift.
François Clapuyt, Veerle Vanacker, Marcus Christl, Kristof Van Oost, and Fritz Schlunegger
Solid Earth, 10, 1489–1503, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1489-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1489-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Using state-of-the-art geomorphic techniques, we quantified a 2-order of magnitude discrepancy between annual, decadal, and millennial sediment fluxes of a landslide-affected mountainous river catchment in the Swiss Alps. Our results illustrate that the impact of a single sediment pulse is strongly attenuated at larger spatial and temporal scales by sediment transport. The accumulation of multiple sediment pulses has rather a measurable impact on the regional pattern of sediment fluxes.
Robert A. Watson, Eoghan P. Holohan, Djamil Al-Halbouni, Leila Saberi, Ali Sawarieh, Damien Closson, Hussam Alrshdan, Najib Abou Karaki, Christian Siebert, Thomas R. Walter, and Torsten Dahm
Solid Earth, 10, 1451–1468, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1451-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1451-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The fall of the Dead Sea level since the 1960s has provoked the formation of over 6000 sinkholes, a major hazard to local economy and infrastructure. In this context, we study the evolution of subsidence phenomena at three area scales at the Dead Sea’s eastern shore from 1967–2017. Our results yield the most detailed insights to date into the spatio-temporal development of sinkholes and larger depressions (uvalas) in an evaporite karst setting and emphasize a link to the falling Dead Sea level.
Cited articles
Abelson, M., Yechieli, Y., Baer, G., Lapid, G., Behar, N., Calvo, R., and
Rosensaft, M.: Natural versus human control on subsurface salt dissolution
and development of thousands of sinkholes along the Dead Sea coast, J.
Geophys. Res.-Earth, 122, 1262–1277, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JF004219,
2017.
Al-Halbouni, D., Holohan, E. P., Saberi, L., Alrshdan, H., Sawarieh, A.,
Closson, D., Walter, T. R., and Dahm, T.: Sinkholes, subsidence and subrosion
on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea as revealed by a close-range
photogrammetric survey, Geomorphology, 285, 305–324,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.02.006, 2017.
Al-Halbouni, D., Holohan, E. P., Taheri, A., Schöpfer, M. P. J., Emam, S., and Dahm, T.: Geomechanical modelling of sinkhole development using distinct elements: model verification for a single void space and application to the Dead Sea area, Solid Earth, 9, 1341–1373, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1341-2018, 2018.
Atzori, S., Antonioli, A., Salvi, S., and Baer, G.: InSAR-based modeling and
analysis of sinkholes along the Dead Sea coastline, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42,
8383–8390, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL066053, 2015.
Bartov, Y.: Lake Levels and Sequence Stratigraphy of Lake Lisan, the Late
Pleistocene Precursor of the Dead Sea, Quaternary Res., 57, 9–21,
https://doi.org/10.1006/qres.2001.2284, 2002.
Baryakh, A. A., Rusin, E. P., Stazhevsky, S. B., Fedoseev, A. K., and Khan,
G. N.: Stress-strain state of Karst areas, J. Min. Sci., 45, 3–10, 2009.
BGR, IAH, KIT and UNESCO: World Karst Aquifer Map, 1:40000000, Berlin,
Reading, Karlsruhe, Paris, 2017.
Ćalić, J.: Karstic uvala revisited: Toward a redefinition of the
term, Geomorphology, 134, 32–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.06.029,
2011.
Chen, Z., Auler, A. S., Bakalowicz, M., Drew, D., Griger, F., Hartmann, J.,
Jiang, G., Moosdorf, N., Richts, A., Stevanovic, Z., Veni, G., and
Goldscheider, N.: The World Karst Aquifer Mapping project: concept, mapping
procedure and map of Europe, Hydrogeol. J., 25, 771–785,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-016-1519-3, 2017.
Cundall, P. A.: A computer model for simulating progressive large scale
movements in blocky rock systems, Proc. Symp. Rock Fract, (ISRM), Nancy, 1,
1971.
Cundall, P. A. and Strack, O. D. L.: A discrete numerical model for granular
assemblies, Géotechnique, 29, 47–65, 1979.
Dahm, T. and Becker, T.: On the elastic and viscous properties of media
containing strongly interacting in-plane cracks, Pure Appl. Geophys.,
151, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1007/s000240050102, 1998.
De Waele, J., Gutiérrez, F., Parise, M., and Plan, L.: Geomorphology and
natural hazards in karst areas: A review, Geomorphology, 134, 1–8,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.08.001, 2011.
Dix, C. H.: Seismic velocities from surface measurements, Geophysics, 20,
68–86, 1955.
Dreybrodt, W., Gabrovšek, F., and Romanov, D.: Processes of a
Speleogenessis: A Modeling Approach, Založba ZRC, 2005.
Fazio, N. L., Perrotti, M., Lollino, P., Parise, M., Vattano, M., Madonia,
G., and Di Maggio, C.: A three-dimensional back-analysis of the collapse of
an underground cavity in soft rocks, Eng. Geol., 228, 301–311,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.08.014, 2017.
Filin, S., Baruch, A., Avni, Y., and Marco, S.: Sinkhole characterization in
the Dead Sea area using airborne laser scanning, Nat. Hazards, 58,
1135–1154, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-011-9718-7, 2011.
Gutiérrez, F., Parise, M., De Waele, J., and Jourde, H.: A review on
natural and human-induced geohazards and impacts in karst, Earth-Sci.
Rev., 138, 61–88, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.08.002, 2014.
Hammam, A. H. and Eliwa, M.: Comparison between results of dynamic and
static moduli of soil determined by different methods, HBRC J., 9,
144–149, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hbrcj.2013.05.002, 2013.
Hatzor, Y. H., Wainshtein, I., and Bakun Mazor, D.: Stability of shallow
karstic caverns in blocky rock masses, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 47,
1289–1303, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2010.09.014, 2010.
Hazzard, J. F.: Acoustic Emission Calculation in PFC5.0, Minneapolis,
Minnesota, USA, 2014.
Hazzard, J. F. and Young, R. P.: Dynamic modelling of induced seismicity,
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 41, 1365–1376,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2004.09.005, 2004.
Holohan, E. P., Schöpfer, M. P. J., and Walsh, J. J.: Mechanical and
geometric controls on the structural evolution of pit crater and caldera
subsidence, J. Geophys. Res., 116, B07202, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JB008032, 2011.
Holohan, E. P., Schöpfer, M. P. J., and Walsh, J. J.: Stress evolution
during caldera collapse, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 421, 139–151,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2015.03.003, 2015.
Itasca: PFC 5.0 Manual, Itasca International, Inc., Technical Documentation, 2014.
Jing, L. and Stephansson, O.: Fundamentals of Discrete Element Methods for
Rock Engineering, Elsevier, 2007.
Kaufmann, G. and Dreybrodt, W.: Calcite dissolution kinetics in the system
CaCO3-H2O-CO2 at high undersaturation, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 71,
1398–1410, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.10.024, 2007.
Parise, M. and Lollino, P.: A preliminary analysis of failure mechanisms in
karst and man-made underground caves in Southern Italy, Geomorphology,
134, 132–143, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.06.008, 2011.
Polom, U., Alrshdan, H., Al-Halbouni, D., Holohan, E. P., Dahm, T., Sawarieh, A., Atallah, M. Y., and Krawczyk, C. M.: Shear wave reflection seismic yields subsurface dissolution and subrosion patterns: application to the Ghor Al-Haditha sinkhole site, Dead Sea, Jordan, Solid Earth, 9, 1079–1098, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1079-2018, 2018.
Potyondy, D. O.: The bonded-particle model as a tool for rock mechanics
research and application: current trends and future directions, Geosystem
Eng., 17, 342–369, 2014.
Potyondy, D. O. and Cundall, P. A.: A bonded-particle model for rock, Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 41, 1329–1364,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2004.09.011, 2004.
Romanov, D., Kaufmann, G., and Hiller, T.: Karstification of aquifers
interspersed with non-soluble rocks: From basic principles towards case
studies, Eng. Geol., 116, 261–273, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.09.008,
2010.
Schöpfer, M. P. J., Childs, C., and Walsh, J. J.: Localisation of normal
faults in multilayer sequences, J. Struct. Geol., 28, 816–833,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2006.02.003, 2006.
Schöpfer, M. P. J., Childs, C., and Walsh, J. J.: Two-dimensional
distinct element modeling of the structure and growth of normal faults in
multilayer sequences: 1. Model calibration, boundary conditions, and
selected results, J. Geophys. Res., 112, B10401, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JB004902,
2007.
Schöpfer, M. P. J., Abe, S., Childs, C., and Walsh, J. J.: The impact of
porosity and crack density on the elasticity, strength and friction of
cohesive granular materials: Insights from DEM modelling, Int. J. Rock Mech.
Min. Sci., 46, 250–261, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2008.03.009, 2009.
Soldal, M. and Mondol, N. H.: Dynamic to static relationships of shear
modulus for sand and sandstones, in: Thrid international Workshop on Rock
Physics, Perth, Australia, 2015.
Tharp, T. M.: Mechanics of upward propagation of cover-collapse sinkholes,
Eng. Geol., 52, 23–33, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(98)00051-9, 1999.
Wadas, S. H., Polom, U., and Krawczyk, C. M.: High-resolution shear-wave seismic reflection as a tool to image near-surface subrosion structures – a case study in Bad Frankenhausen, Germany, Solid Earth, 7, 1491–1508, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-7-1491-2016, 2016.
Waltham, T.: Control the drainage: the gospel accorded to sinkholes, Q. J.
Eng. Geol. Hydroge., 49, 5–20, https://doi.org/10.1144/qjegh2015-088, 2016.
Waltham, T., Bell, F., and Culshaw, M. G.: Sinkholes and subsidence: Karst
and Cavernous Rocks in Engineering and Construction, Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2005.
Wang, C., Deng, A., and Taheri, A.: Three-dimensional discrete element
modeling of direct shear test for granular rubber-sand, Comput. Geotech.,
97, 204–216, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2018.01.014, 2018.
Watson, R. A., Holohan, E. P., Al-Halbouni, D., Saberi, L., Sawarieh, A., Closson, D., Alrshdan, H., Abou Karaki, N., Siebert, C., Walter, T. R., and Dahm, T.: Sinkholes and uvalas in evaporite karst: spatio-temporal development with links to base-level fall on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea, Solid Earth Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/se-2018-105, in review, 2019.
Weisbrod, N., Alon-Mordish, C., Konen, E. and Yechieli, Y.: Dynamic
dissolution of halite rock during flow of, diluted saline solutions, Geophys.
Res. Lett., 39, 1–7, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL051306, 2012.
Wichtmann, T. and Triantafyllidis, T.: On the correlation of “static” and
“dynamic” stiffness moduli of non-cohesive soils, Bautechnik, 86, 28–39,
https://doi.org/10.1002/bate.200910039, 2009.
Yechieli, Y., Abelson, M., and Baer, G.: Sinkhole formation and subsidence
along the Dead Sea coast, Israel, Hydrogeol. J., 24, 601–612,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-015-1338-y, 2016.
Short summary
A 2-D numerical modelling approach to simulate the mechanical formation of sinkhole cluster inside large-scale karstic depressions is presented. Different multiple cavity growth scenarios at depth are compared regarding the mechanical process and collapse style. The outcomes of the models are compared to results from remote sensing and geophysics for an active sinkhole area in the Dead Sea region.
A 2-D numerical modelling approach to simulate the mechanical formation of sinkhole cluster...
