Articles | Volume 11, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2075-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2075-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Review article
| 
13 Nov 2020
Review article |
| 13 Nov 2020
| 13 Nov 2020
The physics of fault friction: insights from experiments on simulated gouges at low shearing velocities
Berend A. Verberne
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Geological Survey of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial
Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8567, Japan
Martijn P. A. van den Ende
Université Côte d'Azur, IRD, CNRS, Observatoire de la Côte
d'Azur, Géoazur, France
Jianye Chen
Geoscience and Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology,
Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN Delft, the Netherlands
Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 4,
3584 CB Utrecht, the Netherlands
André R. Niemeijer
Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 4,
3584 CB Utrecht, the Netherlands
Christopher J. Spiers
Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 4,
3584 CB Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Larissa Friedenberg, Jeroen Bartol, James Bean, Steffen Beese, Hendrik Bollmann, Hans J. P. de Bresser, Jibril Coulibaly, Oliver Czaikowski, Uwe Düsterloh, Ralf Eickemeier, Ann-Kathrin Gartzke, Suzanne Hangx, Ben Laurich, Christian Lerch, Svetlana Lerche, Wenting Liu, Christoph Lüdeling, Melissa M. Mills, Nina Müller-Hoeppe, Bart van Oosterhout, Till Popp, Ole Rabbel, Michael Rahmig, Benjamin Reedlunn, Christopher Rölke, Christopher Spiers, Kristoff Svensson, Jan Thiedau, and Kornelia Zemke
Saf. Nucl. Waste Disposal, 2, 109–111, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-109-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-109-2023, 2023
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For the deep geological disposal of high-level nuclear waste in rock salt formations, the safety concept includes the backfilling of open cavities with crushed salt. For the prognosis of the sealing function of the backfill for the safe containment of the nuclear waste, it is crucial to have a comprehensive process understanding of the crushed-salt compaction behavior. The KOMPASS projects were initiated to improve the scientific knowledge of using crushed salt as backfill material.
Martijn P. A. van den Ende and Jean-Paul Ampuero
Solid Earth, 12, 915–934, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-915-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-915-2021, 2021
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Distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) is an emerging technology that measures stretching of an optical-fibre cable. This technology can be used to record the ground shaking of earthquakes, which offers a cost-efficient alternative to conventional seismometers. Since DAS is relatively new, we need to verify that existing seismological methods can be applied to this new data type. In this study, we reveal several issues by comparing DAS with conventional seismometer data for earthquake localisation.
Martijn P. A. van den Ende, Marco M. Scuderi, Frédéric Cappa, and Jean-Paul Ampuero
Solid Earth, 11, 2245–2256, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2245-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2245-2020, 2020
Short summary
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The injection of fluids (like wastewater or CO2) into the subsurface could cause earthquakes when existing geological faults inside the reservoir are (re-)activated. To assess the hazard associated with this, previous studies have conducted experiments in which fluids have been injected into centimetre- and decimetre-scale faults. In this work, we analyse and model these experiments. To this end, we propose a new approach through which we extract the model parameters that govern slip on faults.
Caiyuan Fan, Jinfeng Liu, Luuk B. Hunfeld, and Christopher J. Spiers
Solid Earth, 11, 1399–1422, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-1399-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-1399-2020, 2020
Short summary
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Coal is an important source rock for natural gas recovery, and its frictional properties play a role in induced seismicity. We performed experiments to investigate the frictional properties of bituminous coal, and our results show that the frictional strength of coal became significantly weakened with slip displacement, from a peak value of 0.5 to a steady-state value of 0.3. This may be caused by the development of shear bands with internal shear-enhanced molecular structure.
Related subject area
Subject area: Tectonic plate interactions, magma genesis, and lithosphere deformation at all scales | Editorial team: Structural geology and tectonics, paleoseismology, rock physics, experimental deformation | Discipline: Mineral and rock physics
Using internal standards in time-resolved X-ray micro-computed tomography to quantify grain-scale developments in solid-state mineral reactions
Investigating rough single-fracture permeabilities with persistent homology
Development of multi-field rock resistivity test system for THMC
Raman spectroscopy in thrust-stacked carbonates: an investigation of spectral parameters with implications for temperature calculations in strained samples
Failure mode transition in Opalinus Clay: a hydro-mechanical and microstructural perspective
Thermal equation of state of the main minerals of eclogite: Constraining the density evolution of eclogite during the delamination process in Tibet
Creep of CarbFix basalt: influence of rock–fluid interaction
Micromechanisms leading to shear failure of Opalinus Clay in a triaxial test: a high-resolution BIB–SEM study
Elastic anisotropies of rocks in a subduction and exhumation setting
Mechanical and hydraulic properties of the excavation damaged zone (EDZ) in the Opalinus Clay of the Mont Terri rock laboratory, Switzerland
The competition between fracture nucleation, propagation, and coalescence in dry and water-saturated crystalline rock
Effect of normal stress on the frictional behavior of brucite: application to slow earthquakes at the subduction plate interface in the mantle wedge
Measuring hydraulic fracture apertures: a comparison of methods
Extracting microphysical fault friction parameters from laboratory and field injection experiments
Frictional slip weakening and shear-enhanced crystallinity in simulated coal fault gouges at slow slip rates
The hydraulic efficiency of single fractures: correcting the cubic law parameterization for self-affine surface roughness and fracture closure
Magnetic properties of pseudotachylytes from western Jämtland, central Swedish Caledonides
The variation and visualisation of elastic anisotropy in rock-forming minerals
Deformation mechanisms in mafic amphibolites and granulites: record from the Semail metamorphic sole during subduction infancy
Uniaxial compression of calcite single crystals at room temperature: insights into twinning activation and development
Roberto Emanuele Rizzo, Damien Freitas, James Gilgannon, Sohan Seth, Ian B. Butler, Gina Elizabeth McGill, and Florian Fusseis
Solid Earth, 15, 493–512, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-493-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-493-2024, 2024
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Here we introduce a new approach for analysing time-resolved 3D X-ray images tracking mineral changes in rocks. Using deep learning, we accurately identify and quantify the evolution of mineral components during reactions. The method demonstrates high precision in quantifying a metamorphic reaction, enabling accurate calculation of mineral growth rates and porosity changes. This showcases artificial intelligence's potential to enhance our understanding of Earth science processes.
Marco Fuchs, Anna Suzuki, Togo Hasumi, and Philipp Blum
Solid Earth, 15, 353–365, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-353-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-353-2024, 2024
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In this study, the permeability of a natural fracture in sandstone is estimated based only on its geometry. For this purpose, the topological method of persistent homology is applied to three geometric data sets with different resolutions for the first time. The results of all data sets compare well with conventional experimental and numerical methods. Since the analysis takes less time to the same amount of time, it seems to be a good alternative to conventional methods.
Jianwei Ren, Lei Song, Qirui Wang, Haipeng Li, Junqi Fan, Jianhua Yue, and Honglei Shen
Solid Earth, 14, 261–270, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-261-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-261-2023, 2023
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A THMC multi-field rock resistivity test system is developed, which has the functions of rock triaxial and resistivity testing under the conditions of high and low temperature, high pressure, and high salinity water seepage. A sealing method to prevent the formation of a water film on the side of the specimen is proposed based on the characteristics of the device. The device is suitable for studying the relationship between rock mechanical properties and resistivity in complex environments.
Lauren Kedar, Clare E. Bond, and David K. Muirhead
Solid Earth, 13, 1495–1511, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1495-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1495-2022, 2022
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Raman spectroscopy of carbon-bearing rocks is often used to calculate peak temperatures and therefore burial history. However, strain is known to affect Raman spectral parameters. We investigate a series of deformed rocks that have been subjected to varying degrees of strain and find that there is a consistent change in some parameters in the most strained rocks, while other parameters are not affected by strain. We apply temperature calculations and find that strain affects them differently.
Lisa Winhausen, Kavan Khaledi, Mohammadreza Jalali, Janos L. Urai, and Florian Amann
Solid Earth, 13, 901–915, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-901-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-901-2022, 2022
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Triaxial compression tests at different effective stresses allow for analysing the deformation behaviour of Opalinus Clay, the potential host rock for nuclear waste in Switzerland. We conducted microstructural investigations of the deformed samples to relate the bulk hydro-mechanical behaviour to the processes on the microscale. Results show a transition from brittle- to more ductile-dominated deformation. We propose a non-linear failure envelop associated with the failure mode transition.
Zhilin Ye, Dawei Fan, Bo Li, Qizhe Tang, Jingui Xu, Dongzhou Zhang, and Wenge Zhou
Solid Earth, 13, 745–759, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-745-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-745-2022, 2022
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Eclogite is a major factor in the initiation of delamination during orogenic collision. According to the equations of state of main minerals of eclogite under high temperature and high pressure, the densities of eclogite along two types of delamination in Tibet are provided. The effects of eclogite on the delamination process are discussed in detail. A high abundance of garnet, a high Fe content, and a high degree of eclogitization are more conducive to instigating the delamination.
Tiange Xing, Hamed O. Ghaffari, Ulrich Mok, and Matej Pec
Solid Earth, 13, 137–160, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-137-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-137-2022, 2022
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Geological carbon sequestration using basalts provides a solution to mitigate the high CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. Due to the long timespan of the GCS, it is important to understand the long-term deformation of the reservoir rock. Here, we studied the creep of basalt with fluid presence. Our results show presence of fluid weakens the rock and promotes creep, while the composition only has a secondary effect and demonstrate that the governing creep mechanism is subcritical microcracking.
Lisa Winhausen, Jop Klaver, Joyce Schmatz, Guillaume Desbois, Janos L. Urai, Florian Amann, and Christophe Nussbaum
Solid Earth, 12, 2109–2126, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2109-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2109-2021, 2021
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An experimentally deformed sample of Opalinus Clay (OPA), which is being considered as host rock for nuclear waste in Switzerland, was studied by electron microscopy to image deformation microstructures. Deformation localised by forming micrometre-thick fractures. Deformation zones show dilatant micro-cracking, granular flow and bending grains, and pore collapse. Our model, with three different stages of damage accumulation, illustrates microstructural deformation in a compressed OPA sample.
Michael J. Schmidtke, Ruth Keppler, Jacek Kossak-Glowczewski, Nikolaus Froitzheim, and Michael Stipp
Solid Earth, 12, 1801–1828, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-1801-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-1801-2021, 2021
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Properties of deformed rocks are frequently anisotropic. One of these properties is the travel time of a seismic wave. In this study we measured the seismic anisotropy of different rocks, collected in the Alps. Our results show distinct differences between rocks of oceanic origin and those of continental origin.
Sina Hale, Xavier Ries, David Jaeggi, and Philipp Blum
Solid Earth, 12, 1581–1600, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-1581-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-1581-2021, 2021
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The construction of tunnels leads to substantial alterations of the surrounding rock, which can be critical concerning safety aspects. We use different mobile methods to assess the hydromechanical properties of an excavation damaged zone (EDZ) in a claystone. We show that long-term exposure and dehydration preserve a notable fracture permeability and significantly increase strength and stiffness. The methods are suitable for on-site monitoring without any further disturbance of the rock.
Jessica A. McBeck, Wenlu Zhu, and François Renard
Solid Earth, 12, 375–387, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-375-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-375-2021, 2021
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The competing modes of fault network development, including nucleation, propagation, and coalescence, influence the localization and connectivity of fracture networks and are thus critical influences on permeability. We distinguish between these modes of fracture development using in situ X-ray tomography triaxial compression experiments on crystalline rocks. The results underscore the importance of confining stress (burial depth) and fluids on fault network development.
Hanaya Okuda, Ikuo Katayama, Hiroshi Sakuma, and Kenji Kawai
Solid Earth, 12, 171–186, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-171-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-171-2021, 2021
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Serpentinite, generated by the hydration of ultramafic rocks, is thought to be related to slow earthquakes at the subduction plate interface in the mantle wedge. We conducted friction experiments on brucite, one of the components of serpentinite, and found that wet brucite exhibits low and unstable friction under low effective normal stress conditions. This result suggests that wet brucite may be key for slow earthquakes at the subduction plate interface in a hydrated mantle wedge.
Chaojie Cheng, Sina Hale, Harald Milsch, and Philipp Blum
Solid Earth, 11, 2411–2423, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2411-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2411-2020, 2020
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Fluids (like water or gases) within the Earth's crust often flow and interact with rock through fractures. The efficiency with which these fluids may flow through this void space is controlled by the width of the fracture(s). In this study, three different physical methods to measure fracture width were applied and compared and their predictive accuracy was evaluated. As a result, the mobile methods tested may well be applied in the field if a number of limitations and requirements are observed.
Martijn P. A. van den Ende, Marco M. Scuderi, Frédéric Cappa, and Jean-Paul Ampuero
Solid Earth, 11, 2245–2256, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2245-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2245-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The injection of fluids (like wastewater or CO2) into the subsurface could cause earthquakes when existing geological faults inside the reservoir are (re-)activated. To assess the hazard associated with this, previous studies have conducted experiments in which fluids have been injected into centimetre- and decimetre-scale faults. In this work, we analyse and model these experiments. To this end, we propose a new approach through which we extract the model parameters that govern slip on faults.
Caiyuan Fan, Jinfeng Liu, Luuk B. Hunfeld, and Christopher J. Spiers
Solid Earth, 11, 1399–1422, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-1399-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-1399-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Coal is an important source rock for natural gas recovery, and its frictional properties play a role in induced seismicity. We performed experiments to investigate the frictional properties of bituminous coal, and our results show that the frictional strength of coal became significantly weakened with slip displacement, from a peak value of 0.5 to a steady-state value of 0.3. This may be caused by the development of shear bands with internal shear-enhanced molecular structure.
Maximilian O. Kottwitz, Anton A. Popov, Tobias S. Baumann, and Boris J. P. Kaus
Solid Earth, 11, 947–957, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-947-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-947-2020, 2020
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In this study, we conducted 3-D numerical simulations of fluid flow in synthetically generated fractures that statistically reflect geometries of naturally occurring fractures. We introduced a non-dimensional characterization scheme to relate fracture permeabilities estimated from the numerical simulations to their geometries in a unique manner. By that, we refined the scaling law for fracture permeability, which can be easily integrated into discrete-fracture-network (DFN) modeling approaches.
Bjarne S. G. Almqvist, Hagen Bender, Amanda Bergman, and Uwe Ring
Solid Earth, 11, 807–828, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-807-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-807-2020, 2020
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Rocks in fault zones can melt during earthquakes. The geometry and magnetic properties of such earthquake-melted rocks from Jämtland, central Sweden, show that they formed during Caledonian mountain building in the Palaeozoic. The small sample size (~0.2 cm3) used in this study is unconventional in studies of magnetic anisotropy and introduces challenges for interpretations. Nevertheless, the magnetic properties help shed light on the earthquake event and subsequent alteration of the rock.
David Healy, Nicholas Erik Timms, and Mark Alan Pearce
Solid Earth, 11, 259–286, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-259-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-259-2020, 2020
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Rock-forming minerals behave elastically, a property that controls their ability to support stress and strain, controls the transmission of seismic waves, and influences subsequent permanent deformation. Minerals are intrinsically anisotropic in their elastic properties; that is, they have directional variations that are related to the crystal lattice. We explore this directionality and present new ways of visualising it. We hope this will enable further advances in understanding deformation.
Mathieu Soret, Philippe Agard, Benoît Ildefonse, Benoît Dubacq, Cécile Prigent, and Claudio Rosenberg
Solid Earth, 10, 1733–1755, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1733-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1733-2019, 2019
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This study sheds light on the mineral-scale mechanisms controlling the progressive deformation of sheared amphibolites from the Oman metamorphic sole during subduction initiation and unravels how strain is localized and accommodated in hydrated mafic rocks at high temperature conditions. Our results indicate how metamorphic reactions and pore-fluid pressures driven by changes in pressure–temperature conditions and/or water activity control the rheology of mafic rocks.
Camille Parlangeau, Alexandre Dimanov, Olivier Lacombe, Simon Hallais, and Jean-Marc Daniel
Solid Earth, 10, 307–316, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-307-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-307-2019, 2019
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Calcite twinning is a common deformation mechanism that mainly occurs at low temperatures. Twinning activation appears at a critical strength value, which is poorly documented and still debated. Temperature is known to influence twin thickness and shape; however, few studies have been conducted on calcite deformation at low temperatures. The goal of this work is to determine if thickness is mainly due to high temperatures and to establish the validity of a threshold twinning activation value.
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Short summary
The strength of fault rock plays a central role in determining the distribution of crustal seismicity. We review laboratory work on the physics of fault friction at low shearing velocities carried out at Utrecht University in the past 2 decades. Key mechanical data and post-mortem microstructures can be explained using a generalized, physically based model for the shear of gouge-filled faults. When implemented into numerical fault-slip codes, this offers new ways to simulate the seismic cycle.
The strength of fault rock plays a central role in determining the distribution of crustal...
