Articles | Volume 11, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-1399-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-1399-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
26 Jul 2020
Research article |
| 26 Jul 2020
| 26 Jul 2020
Frictional slip weakening and shear-enhanced crystallinity in simulated coal fault gouges at slow slip rates
Caiyuan Fan
School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University,
Guangzhou, 510275, China
School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University,
Guangzhou, 510275, China
Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Geodynamics and Geohazards, Sun
Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai, 519082, China
Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Zhuhai,
519082, China
Luuk B. Hunfeld
Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, 3584 CB,
the Netherlands
Christopher J. Spiers
Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, 3584 CB,
the Netherlands
Related authors
No articles found.
Larissa Friedenberg, Jeroen Bartol, James Bean, Steffen Beese, Hendrik Bollmann, Hans J. P. de Bresser, Jibril Coulibaly, Oliver Czaikowski, Uwe Düsterloh, Ralf Eickemeier, Ann-Kathrin Gartzke, Suzanne Hangx, Ben Laurich, Christian Lerch, Svetlana Lerche, Wenting Liu, Christoph Lüdeling, Melissa M. Mills, Nina Müller-Hoeppe, Bart van Oosterhout, Till Popp, Ole Rabbel, Michael Rahmig, Benjamin Reedlunn, Christopher Rölke, Christopher Spiers, Kristoff Svensson, Jan Thiedau, and Kornelia Zemke
Saf. Nucl. Waste Disposal, 2, 109–111, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-109-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-109-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
For the deep geological disposal of high-level nuclear waste in rock salt formations, the safety concept includes the backfilling of open cavities with crushed salt. For the prognosis of the sealing function of the backfill for the safe containment of the nuclear waste, it is crucial to have a comprehensive process understanding of the crushed-salt compaction behavior. The KOMPASS projects were initiated to improve the scientific knowledge of using crushed salt as backfill material.
Berend A. Verberne, Martijn P. A. van den Ende, Jianye Chen, André R. Niemeijer, and Christopher J. Spiers
Solid Earth, 11, 2075–2095, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2075-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2075-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The strength of fault rock plays a central role in determining the distribution of crustal seismicity. We review laboratory work on the physics of fault friction at low shearing velocities carried out at Utrecht University in the past 2 decades. Key mechanical data and post-mortem microstructures can be explained using a generalized, physically based model for the shear of gouge-filled faults. When implemented into numerical fault-slip codes, this offers new ways to simulate the seismic cycle.
Related subject area
Subject area: Tectonic plate interactions, magma genesis, and lithosphere deformation at all scales | Editorial team: Structural geology and tectonics, paleoseismology, rock physics, experimental deformation | Discipline: Mineral and rock physics
Using internal standards in time-resolved X-ray micro-computed tomography to quantify grain-scale developments in solid-state mineral reactions
Investigating rough single-fracture permeabilities with persistent homology
Development of multi-field rock resistivity test system for THMC
Raman spectroscopy in thrust-stacked carbonates: an investigation of spectral parameters with implications for temperature calculations in strained samples
Failure mode transition in Opalinus Clay: a hydro-mechanical and microstructural perspective
Thermal equation of state of the main minerals of eclogite: Constraining the density evolution of eclogite during the delamination process in Tibet
Creep of CarbFix basalt: influence of rock–fluid interaction
Micromechanisms leading to shear failure of Opalinus Clay in a triaxial test: a high-resolution BIB–SEM study
Elastic anisotropies of rocks in a subduction and exhumation setting
Mechanical and hydraulic properties of the excavation damaged zone (EDZ) in the Opalinus Clay of the Mont Terri rock laboratory, Switzerland
The competition between fracture nucleation, propagation, and coalescence in dry and water-saturated crystalline rock
Effect of normal stress on the frictional behavior of brucite: application to slow earthquakes at the subduction plate interface in the mantle wedge
Measuring hydraulic fracture apertures: a comparison of methods
Extracting microphysical fault friction parameters from laboratory and field injection experiments
The physics of fault friction: insights from experiments on simulated gouges at low shearing velocities
The hydraulic efficiency of single fractures: correcting the cubic law parameterization for self-affine surface roughness and fracture closure
Magnetic properties of pseudotachylytes from western Jämtland, central Swedish Caledonides
The variation and visualisation of elastic anisotropy in rock-forming minerals
Deformation mechanisms in mafic amphibolites and granulites: record from the Semail metamorphic sole during subduction infancy
Uniaxial compression of calcite single crystals at room temperature: insights into twinning activation and development
Roberto Emanuele Rizzo, Damien Freitas, James Gilgannon, Sohan Seth, Ian B. Butler, Gina Elizabeth McGill, and Florian Fusseis
Solid Earth, 15, 493–512, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-493-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-493-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Here we introduce a new approach for analysing time-resolved 3D X-ray images tracking mineral changes in rocks. Using deep learning, we accurately identify and quantify the evolution of mineral components during reactions. The method demonstrates high precision in quantifying a metamorphic reaction, enabling accurate calculation of mineral growth rates and porosity changes. This showcases artificial intelligence's potential to enhance our understanding of Earth science processes.
Marco Fuchs, Anna Suzuki, Togo Hasumi, and Philipp Blum
Solid Earth, 15, 353–365, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-353-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-353-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, the permeability of a natural fracture in sandstone is estimated based only on its geometry. For this purpose, the topological method of persistent homology is applied to three geometric data sets with different resolutions for the first time. The results of all data sets compare well with conventional experimental and numerical methods. Since the analysis takes less time to the same amount of time, it seems to be a good alternative to conventional methods.
Jianwei Ren, Lei Song, Qirui Wang, Haipeng Li, Junqi Fan, Jianhua Yue, and Honglei Shen
Solid Earth, 14, 261–270, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-261-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-261-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
A THMC multi-field rock resistivity test system is developed, which has the functions of rock triaxial and resistivity testing under the conditions of high and low temperature, high pressure, and high salinity water seepage. A sealing method to prevent the formation of a water film on the side of the specimen is proposed based on the characteristics of the device. The device is suitable for studying the relationship between rock mechanical properties and resistivity in complex environments.
Lauren Kedar, Clare E. Bond, and David K. Muirhead
Solid Earth, 13, 1495–1511, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1495-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1495-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Raman spectroscopy of carbon-bearing rocks is often used to calculate peak temperatures and therefore burial history. However, strain is known to affect Raman spectral parameters. We investigate a series of deformed rocks that have been subjected to varying degrees of strain and find that there is a consistent change in some parameters in the most strained rocks, while other parameters are not affected by strain. We apply temperature calculations and find that strain affects them differently.
Lisa Winhausen, Kavan Khaledi, Mohammadreza Jalali, Janos L. Urai, and Florian Amann
Solid Earth, 13, 901–915, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-901-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-901-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Triaxial compression tests at different effective stresses allow for analysing the deformation behaviour of Opalinus Clay, the potential host rock for nuclear waste in Switzerland. We conducted microstructural investigations of the deformed samples to relate the bulk hydro-mechanical behaviour to the processes on the microscale. Results show a transition from brittle- to more ductile-dominated deformation. We propose a non-linear failure envelop associated with the failure mode transition.
Zhilin Ye, Dawei Fan, Bo Li, Qizhe Tang, Jingui Xu, Dongzhou Zhang, and Wenge Zhou
Solid Earth, 13, 745–759, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-745-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-745-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Eclogite is a major factor in the initiation of delamination during orogenic collision. According to the equations of state of main minerals of eclogite under high temperature and high pressure, the densities of eclogite along two types of delamination in Tibet are provided. The effects of eclogite on the delamination process are discussed in detail. A high abundance of garnet, a high Fe content, and a high degree of eclogitization are more conducive to instigating the delamination.
Tiange Xing, Hamed O. Ghaffari, Ulrich Mok, and Matej Pec
Solid Earth, 13, 137–160, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-137-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-137-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Geological carbon sequestration using basalts provides a solution to mitigate the high CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. Due to the long timespan of the GCS, it is important to understand the long-term deformation of the reservoir rock. Here, we studied the creep of basalt with fluid presence. Our results show presence of fluid weakens the rock and promotes creep, while the composition only has a secondary effect and demonstrate that the governing creep mechanism is subcritical microcracking.
Lisa Winhausen, Jop Klaver, Joyce Schmatz, Guillaume Desbois, Janos L. Urai, Florian Amann, and Christophe Nussbaum
Solid Earth, 12, 2109–2126, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2109-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2109-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
An experimentally deformed sample of Opalinus Clay (OPA), which is being considered as host rock for nuclear waste in Switzerland, was studied by electron microscopy to image deformation microstructures. Deformation localised by forming micrometre-thick fractures. Deformation zones show dilatant micro-cracking, granular flow and bending grains, and pore collapse. Our model, with three different stages of damage accumulation, illustrates microstructural deformation in a compressed OPA sample.
Michael J. Schmidtke, Ruth Keppler, Jacek Kossak-Glowczewski, Nikolaus Froitzheim, and Michael Stipp
Solid Earth, 12, 1801–1828, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-1801-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-1801-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Properties of deformed rocks are frequently anisotropic. One of these properties is the travel time of a seismic wave. In this study we measured the seismic anisotropy of different rocks, collected in the Alps. Our results show distinct differences between rocks of oceanic origin and those of continental origin.
Sina Hale, Xavier Ries, David Jaeggi, and Philipp Blum
Solid Earth, 12, 1581–1600, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-1581-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-1581-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The construction of tunnels leads to substantial alterations of the surrounding rock, which can be critical concerning safety aspects. We use different mobile methods to assess the hydromechanical properties of an excavation damaged zone (EDZ) in a claystone. We show that long-term exposure and dehydration preserve a notable fracture permeability and significantly increase strength and stiffness. The methods are suitable for on-site monitoring without any further disturbance of the rock.
Jessica A. McBeck, Wenlu Zhu, and François Renard
Solid Earth, 12, 375–387, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-375-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-375-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The competing modes of fault network development, including nucleation, propagation, and coalescence, influence the localization and connectivity of fracture networks and are thus critical influences on permeability. We distinguish between these modes of fracture development using in situ X-ray tomography triaxial compression experiments on crystalline rocks. The results underscore the importance of confining stress (burial depth) and fluids on fault network development.
Hanaya Okuda, Ikuo Katayama, Hiroshi Sakuma, and Kenji Kawai
Solid Earth, 12, 171–186, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-171-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-171-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Serpentinite, generated by the hydration of ultramafic rocks, is thought to be related to slow earthquakes at the subduction plate interface in the mantle wedge. We conducted friction experiments on brucite, one of the components of serpentinite, and found that wet brucite exhibits low and unstable friction under low effective normal stress conditions. This result suggests that wet brucite may be key for slow earthquakes at the subduction plate interface in a hydrated mantle wedge.
Chaojie Cheng, Sina Hale, Harald Milsch, and Philipp Blum
Solid Earth, 11, 2411–2423, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2411-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2411-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Fluids (like water or gases) within the Earth's crust often flow and interact with rock through fractures. The efficiency with which these fluids may flow through this void space is controlled by the width of the fracture(s). In this study, three different physical methods to measure fracture width were applied and compared and their predictive accuracy was evaluated. As a result, the mobile methods tested may well be applied in the field if a number of limitations and requirements are observed.
Martijn P. A. van den Ende, Marco M. Scuderi, Frédéric Cappa, and Jean-Paul Ampuero
Solid Earth, 11, 2245–2256, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2245-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2245-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The injection of fluids (like wastewater or CO2) into the subsurface could cause earthquakes when existing geological faults inside the reservoir are (re-)activated. To assess the hazard associated with this, previous studies have conducted experiments in which fluids have been injected into centimetre- and decimetre-scale faults. In this work, we analyse and model these experiments. To this end, we propose a new approach through which we extract the model parameters that govern slip on faults.
Berend A. Verberne, Martijn P. A. van den Ende, Jianye Chen, André R. Niemeijer, and Christopher J. Spiers
Solid Earth, 11, 2075–2095, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2075-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2075-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The strength of fault rock plays a central role in determining the distribution of crustal seismicity. We review laboratory work on the physics of fault friction at low shearing velocities carried out at Utrecht University in the past 2 decades. Key mechanical data and post-mortem microstructures can be explained using a generalized, physically based model for the shear of gouge-filled faults. When implemented into numerical fault-slip codes, this offers new ways to simulate the seismic cycle.
Maximilian O. Kottwitz, Anton A. Popov, Tobias S. Baumann, and Boris J. P. Kaus
Solid Earth, 11, 947–957, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-947-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-947-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we conducted 3-D numerical simulations of fluid flow in synthetically generated fractures that statistically reflect geometries of naturally occurring fractures. We introduced a non-dimensional characterization scheme to relate fracture permeabilities estimated from the numerical simulations to their geometries in a unique manner. By that, we refined the scaling law for fracture permeability, which can be easily integrated into discrete-fracture-network (DFN) modeling approaches.
Bjarne S. G. Almqvist, Hagen Bender, Amanda Bergman, and Uwe Ring
Solid Earth, 11, 807–828, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-807-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-807-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Rocks in fault zones can melt during earthquakes. The geometry and magnetic properties of such earthquake-melted rocks from Jämtland, central Sweden, show that they formed during Caledonian mountain building in the Palaeozoic. The small sample size (~0.2 cm3) used in this study is unconventional in studies of magnetic anisotropy and introduces challenges for interpretations. Nevertheless, the magnetic properties help shed light on the earthquake event and subsequent alteration of the rock.
David Healy, Nicholas Erik Timms, and Mark Alan Pearce
Solid Earth, 11, 259–286, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-259-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-259-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Rock-forming minerals behave elastically, a property that controls their ability to support stress and strain, controls the transmission of seismic waves, and influences subsequent permanent deformation. Minerals are intrinsically anisotropic in their elastic properties; that is, they have directional variations that are related to the crystal lattice. We explore this directionality and present new ways of visualising it. We hope this will enable further advances in understanding deformation.
Mathieu Soret, Philippe Agard, Benoît Ildefonse, Benoît Dubacq, Cécile Prigent, and Claudio Rosenberg
Solid Earth, 10, 1733–1755, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1733-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1733-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This study sheds light on the mineral-scale mechanisms controlling the progressive deformation of sheared amphibolites from the Oman metamorphic sole during subduction initiation and unravels how strain is localized and accommodated in hydrated mafic rocks at high temperature conditions. Our results indicate how metamorphic reactions and pore-fluid pressures driven by changes in pressure–temperature conditions and/or water activity control the rheology of mafic rocks.
Camille Parlangeau, Alexandre Dimanov, Olivier Lacombe, Simon Hallais, and Jean-Marc Daniel
Solid Earth, 10, 307–316, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-307-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-307-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Calcite twinning is a common deformation mechanism that mainly occurs at low temperatures. Twinning activation appears at a critical strength value, which is poorly documented and still debated. Temperature is known to influence twin thickness and shape; however, few studies have been conducted on calcite deformation at low temperatures. The goal of this work is to determine if thickness is mainly due to high temperatures and to establish the validity of a threshold twinning activation value.
Cited articles
Ahamed, M. A. A., Perera, M. S. A., Matthai, S. K., Ranjith, P. G., and
Dong-yin, L.: Coal composition and structural variation with rank and its
influence on the coal-moisture interactions under coal seam temperature
conditions – A review article, J. Petrol. Sci. Eng., 180, 901–917,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.06.007, 2019.
Aharonov, E. and Scholz, C. H.: A Physics-Based Rock Friction Constitutive
Law: Steady State Friction, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 123,
1591–1614, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JB013829, 2018.
Baysal, M., Yürüm, A., Yıldız, B., and Yürüm, Y.:
Structure of some western Anatolia coals investigated by FTIR, Raman, 13C
solid state NMR spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction, Int. J. Coal Geol., 163,
166–176, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2016.07.009, 2016.
Beyssac, O., Rouzaud, J.-N., Goffé, B., Brunet, F., and Chopin, C.:
Graphitization in a high-pressure, low-temperature metamorphic gradient: a
Raman microspectroscopy and HRTEM study, Contrib. Mineral. Petr., 143,
19–31, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-001-0324-7, 2002.
Beyssac, O., Goffé, B., Petitet, J.-P., Froigneux, E., Moreau, M., and
Rouzaud, J.-N.: On the characterization of disordered and heterogeneous
carbonaceous materials by Raman spectroscopy, Spectrochim. Acta A,
59, 2267–2276, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1386-1425(03)00070-2, 2003.
Blanpied, M. L., Tullis, T. E., and Weeks, J. D.: Effects of slip, slip rate,
and shear heating on the friction of granite, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea.,
103, 489–511, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JB02480, 1998.
Bonijoly, M., Oberlin, M., and Oberlin, A.: A possible mechanism for natural
graphite formation, Int. J. Coal Geol., 1, 283–312,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162(82)90018-0, 1982.
Brace, W. F. and Byerlee, J. D.: Stick-Slip as a Mechanism for Earthquakes,
Science, 153, 990–992, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.153.3739.990, 1966.
Buijze, L., van den Bogert, P. A. J., Wassing, B. B. T., Orlic, B., and ten Veen,
J.: Fault reactivation mechanisms and dynamic rupture modelling of
depletion-induced seismic events in a Rotliegend gas reservoir, Neth. J.
Geosci., 96, s131–s148, https://doi.org/10.1017/njg.2017.27, 2017.
Buseck, P. R. and Beyssac, O.: From Organic Matter to Graphite:
Graphitization, Elements, 10, 421–426, https://doi.org/10.2113/gselements.10.6.421,
2014.
Buseck, P. R. and Huang, B.-J.: Conversion of carbonaceous material to
graphite during metamorphism, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 49, 2003–2016,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(85)90059-6, 1985.
Bustin, R. M., Ross, J. V., and Rouzaud, J.-N.: Mechanisms of graphite
formation from kerogen: experimental evidence, Int. J. Coal Geol., 28,
1–36, https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162(95)00002-U, 1995a.
Bustin, R. M., Rouzaud, J.-N., and Ross, J. V.: Natural graphitization of
anthracite: Experimental considerations, Carbon, 33, 679–691,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-6223(94)00155-S, 1995b.
Cao, D., Li, X., and Zhang, S.: Influence of tectonic stress on
coalification: Stress degradation mechanism and stress polycondensation
mechanism, Sci. China, Ser. D, 50, 43–54,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-007-2023-3, 2007.
Chen, J. and Spiers, C. J.: Rate and state frictional and healing behavior
of carbonate fault gouge explained using microphysical model: Microphysical
Model for Friction, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 121, 8642–8665,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JB013470, 2016.
Chen, J., Verberne, B. A., and Spiers, C. J.: Effects of healing on the
seismogenic potential of carbonate fault rocks: Experiments on samples from
the Longmenshan Fault, Sichuan, China, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea.,
120, 5479–5506, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JB012051, 2015.
Chen, S., Yin, D., Jiang, N., Wang, F., and Zhao, Z.: Mechanical properties
of oil shale-coal composite samples, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min., 123,
104120, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2019.104120, 2019.
Childres, I., Jauregui, L. A., Park, W., Cao, H., and Chen, Y. P.: Raman
spectroscopy of graphene and related materials, in: New Developments in
Photon and Materials Research, 403–418, Nova Science Publishers, Inc.,
2013.
Dieterich, J. H.: Modeling of rock friction: 1. Experimental results and
constitutive equations, J. Geophys. Res., 84, 2161,
https://doi.org/10.1029/JB084iB05p02161, 1979.
Di Toro, G., Han, R., Hirose, T., De Paola, N., Nielsen, S., Mizoguchi, K.,
Ferri, F., Cocco, M., and Shimamoto, T.: Fault lubrication during
earthquakes, Nature, 471, 494–498, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09838, 2011.
Dun, W., Guijian, L., Ruoyu, S., and Xiang, F.: Investigation of structural
characteristics of thermally metamorphosed coal by FTIR spectroscopy and
X-ray diffraction, Energy Fuels, 27, 5823–5830, https://doi.org/10.1021/ef401276h,
2013.
Ellsworth, W. L.: Injection-Induced Earthquakes, Science, 341, 142,
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1225942, 2013.
Fan, L. and Liu, S.: Fluid-dependent shear slip behaviors of coal fractures
and their implications on fracture frictional strength reduction and
permeability evolutions, Int. J. Coal Geol., 212, 103235,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.103235, 2019.
Faulkner, D. R., Sanchez-Roa, C., Boulton, C., and den Hartog, S. A. M.: Pore
Fluid Pressure Development in Compacting Fault Gouge in Theory, Experiments,
and Nature, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 123, 226–241,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JB015130, 2018.
Fondriest, M., Smith, S. A. F., Candela, T., Nielsen, S. B., Mair, K., and
Toro, G. D.: Mirror-like faults and power dissipation during earthquakes,
Geology, 41, 1175–1178, https://doi.org/10.1130/G34641.1, 2013.
Guo, W.-Y., Tan, Y.-L., Yu, F.-H., Zhao, T.-B., Hu, S.-C., Huang, D.-M., and
Qin, Z.: Mechanical behavior of rock-coal-rock specimens with different coal
thicknesses, Geomech. Eng., 15, 1017–1027,
https://doi.org/10.12989/GAE.2018.15.4.1017, 2018.
Hadizadeh, J., Tullis, T. E., White, J. C., and Konkachbaev, A. I.: Shear
localization, velocity weakening behavior, and development of cataclastic
foliation in experimental granite gouge, J. Struct. Geol., 71, 86–99,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2014.10.013, 2015.
Henry, D. G., Jarvis, I., Gillmore, G., Stephenson, M., and Emmings, J. F.:
Assessing low-maturity organic matter in shales using Raman spectroscopy:
Effects of sample preparation and operating procedure, Int. J. Coal Geol.,
191, 135–151, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.03.005, 2018.
Henry, D. G., Jarvis, I., Gillmore, G., and Stephenson, M.: A rapid method
for determining organic matter maturity using Raman spectroscopy:
Application to Carboniferous organic-rich mudstones and coals, Int. J. Coal
Geol., 203, 87–98, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.01.003, 2019.
Hirsch, P.: X-ray scattering from coals, Proc. R. Soc. A, 226, 143–169,
https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1954.0245, 1954.
Hol, S., Peach, C. J., and Spiers, C. J.: Applied stress reduces the CO2
sorption capacity of coal, Int. J. Coal Geol., 85, 128–142,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2010.10.010, 2011.
Hou, Q., Luo, Y., Han, Y., Du, J., and Xu, R.: Gas generation during
middle-rank coal deformation and the reliminary discussion ofthe mechanism,
J. China Coal Soc., 39, 1678–1682, 2014 (in Chinese).
Hou, Q., Han, Y., Wang, J., Dong, Y., and Pan, J.: The impacts of stress on
the chemical structure of coals: a mini-review based on the recent
development of mechanochemistry, Sci. Bull., 62, 965–970,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scib.2017.06.004, 2017.
Hunfeld, L. B., Niemeijer, A. R., and Spiers, C. J.: Frictional Properties of
Simulated Fault Gouges from the Seismogenic Groningen Gas Field Under In
Situ P-T Chemical Conditions: Friction of Groningen fault gouges, J.
Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 122, 8969–8989, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JB014876,
2017.
Ikari, M. J., Saffer, D. M., and Marone, C.: Frictional and hydrologic
properties of a major splay fault system, Nankai subduction zone, Geophys.
Res. Lett., 36, L20313, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL040009, 2009.
Ikari, M. J., Marone, C., Saffer, D. M., and Kopf, A. J.: Slip weakening as a
mechanism for slow earthquakes, Nat. Geosci., 6, 468–472,
https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1818, 2013.
Jiang, J., Yang, W., Cheng, Y., Liu, Z., Zhang, Q., and Zhao, K.: Molecular
structure characterization of middle-high rank coal via XRD, Raman and FTIR
spectroscopy: Implications for coalification, Fuel, 239, 559–572,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.11.057, 2019.
Ju, Y., Jiang, B., Hou, Q., and Wang, G.: Relationship between nanoscale
deformation of coal structure and metamorphic-deformed environments, Chinese
Sci. Bull., 50, 1785–1796, https://doi.org/10.1360/04wd0205, 2005.
Kaneki, S. and Hirono, T.: Diagenetic and shear-induced transitions of
frictional strength of carbon-bearing faults and their implications for
earthquake rupture dynamics in subduction zones, Sci. Rep.-UK, 9, 7884,
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44307-y, 2019.
Kaneki, S., Ichiba, T., and Hirono, T.: Mechanochemical Effect on Maturation
of Carbonaceous Material: Implications for Thermal Maturity as a Proxy for
Temperature in Estimation of Coseismic Slip Parameters, Geophys. Res. Lett.,
45, 2248–2256, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL076791, 2018.
Khatibi, S., Ostadhassan, M., Tuschel, D., Gentzis, T., Bubach, B., and
Carvajal-Ortiz, H.: Raman spectroscopy to study thermal maturity and elastic
modulus of kerogen, Int. J. Coal Geol., 185, 103–118,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2017.11.008, 2018.
Kirilova, M., Toy, V. G., Timms, N., Halfpenny, A., Menzies, C., Craw, D.,
Beyssac, O., Sutherland, R., Townend, J., Boulton, C., Carpenter, B. M.,
Cooper, A., Grieve, J., Little, T., Morales, L., Morgan, C., Mori, H.,
Sauer, K. M., Schleicher, A. M., Williams, J., and Craw, L.: Textural changes
of graphitic carbon by tectonic and hydrothermal processes in an active
plate boundary fault zone, Alpine Fault, New Zealand, Geol. Soc.
Lond. Spec. Publ., 453, 205–223, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP453.13, 2017.
Kirilova, M., Toy, V., Rooney, J. S., Giorgetti, C., Gordon, K. C., Collettini, C., and Takeshita, T.: Structural disorder of graphite and implications for graphite thermometry, Solid Earth, 9, 223–231, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-223-2018, 2018.
Kitamura, M., Mukoyoshi, H., Fulton, P. M., and Hirose, T.: Coal maturation
by frictional heat during rapid fault slip, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL052316, 2012.
Kohli, A. H. and Zoback, M. D.: Frictional properties of shale reservoir
rocks, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 118, 5109–5125,
https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrb.50346, 2013.
Kuo, L.-W., Li, H., Smith, S. A. F., Di Toro, G., Suppe, J., Song, S.-R.,
Nielsen, S., Sheu, H.-S., and Si, J.: Gouge graphitization and dynamic fault
weakening during the 2008 Mw 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake, Geology, 42,
47–50, https://doi.org/10.1130/G34862.1, 2014.
Kuo, L.-W., Huang, J.-R., Fang, J.-N., Si, J., Song, S.-R., Li, H., and Yeh,
E.-C.: Carbonaceous Materials in the Fault Zone of the Longmenshan Fault
Belt: 2. Characterization of Fault Gouge from Deep Drilling and Implications
for Fault Maturity, Minerals, 8, 393, https://doi.org/10.3390/min8090393, 2018.
Li, K., Khanna, R., Zhang, J., Barati, M., Liu, Z., Xu, T., Yang, T., and
Sahajwalla, V.: Comprehensive Investigation of Various Structural Features
of Bituminous Coals Using Advanced Analytical Techniques, Energy Fuels,
29, 7178–7189, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5b02064, 2015.
Li, W., Bai, J., Cheng, J., Peng, S., and Liu, H.: Determination of
coal–rock interface strength by laboratory direct shear tests under
constant normal load, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min., 77, 60–67,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2015.03.033, 2015.
Li, Z., Wei, X.-Y., Yan, H.-L., and Zong, Z.-M.: Insight into the structural
features of Zhaotong lignite using multiple techniques, Fuel, 153, 176–182,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.02.117, 2015.
Liu, J. and Hunfeld, L. B.: Frictional slip weakening and shear-enhanced
crystallinity in simulated coal fault gouges at subseismic slip rates, EPOS
repository, https://doi.org/10.24416/UU01-48I5DA, 2020.
Liu, J., Spiers, C. J., Peach, C. J., and Vidal-Gilbert, S.: Effect of
lithostatic stress on methane sorption by coal: Theory vs. experiment and
implications for predicting in-situ coalbed methane content, Int. J. Coal
Geol., 167, 48–64, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2016.07.012, 2016.
Liu, J., Fokker, P. A., Peach, C. J., and Spiers, C. J.: Applied stress
reduces swelling of coal induced by adsorption of water, Geomechanics for
Energy and the Environment, 16, 45–63, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2018.05.002,
2018.
Liu, J., Hunfeld, L. B., Niemeijer, A. R., and Spiers, C. J.: Frictional
properties of simulated shale-coal fault gouges: Implications for induced
seismicity in source rocks below Europe's largest gas field, Int. J. Coal
Geol., 226, 103499, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2020.103499, 2020.
Logan, J. M., Dengo, C. A., Higgs, N. G., and Wang, Z. Z.: Fabrics of
Experimental Fault Zones: Their Development and Relationship to Mechanical
Behavior, Int. Geophys., 51,
33–67, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-6142(08)62814-4, 1992.
Lu, L., Sahajwalla, V., Kong, C., and Harris, D.: Quantitative X-ray
diffraction analysis and its application to various coals, Carbon, 39,
1821–1833, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-6223(00)00318-3, 2001.
Ma, T.-B., Wang, L.-F., Hu, Y.-Z., Li, X., and Wang, H.: A shear localization
mechanism for lubricity of amorphous carbon materials, Sci. Rep.-UK, 4, 3662,
https://doi.org/10.1038/srep03662, 2014.
Marone, C.: Laboratory-derived Friction Laws and their Application to
Seismic Faulting, Annu. Rev. Earth Pl. Sc., 26, 643–696,
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.26.1.643, 1998.
Mathews, J. P. and Chaffee, A. L.: The molecular representations of coal –
A review, Fuel, 96, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.11.025, 2012.
Moore, D. E. and Lockner, D. A.: Crystallographic controls on the frictional
behavior of dry and water-saturated sheet structure minerals, J. Geophys.
Res.-Sol. Ea., 109, B03401, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JB002582, 2004.
Morrow, C. A., Moore, D. E., and Lockner, D. A.: The effect of mineral bond
strength and adsorbed water on fault gouge frictional strength, Geophys.
Res. Lett., 27, 815–818, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999GL008401, 2000.
Nakamura, Y., Oohashi, K., Toyoshima, T., Satish-Kumar, M., and Akai, J.:
Strain-induced amorphization of graphite in fault zones of the Hidaka
metamorphic belt, Hokkaido, Japan, J. Struct. Geol., 72, 142–161,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2014.10.012, 2015.
Nakatani, M. and Scholz, C. H.: Frictional healing of quartz gouge under
hydrothermal conditions: 1. Experimental evidence for solution transfer
healing mechanism, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea. 109, B07201,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JB001522, 2004.
Niemeijer, A. R. and Spiers, C. J.: A microphysical model for strong
velocity weakening in phyllosilicate-bearing fault gouges, J. Geophys. Res.,
112, B10405, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JB005008, 2007.
Niu, Z., Liu, G., Yin, H., Wu, D., and Zhou, C.: Investigation of mechanism
and kinetics of non-isothermal low temperature pyrolysis of perhydrous
bituminous coal by in-situ FTIR, Fuel, 172, 1–10,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.01.007, 2016.
Oberlin, A.: Carbonization and graphitization, Carbon, 22, 521–541,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-6223(84)90086-1, 1984.
O'Hara, K., Mizoguchi, K., Shimamoto, T., and Hower, J. C.: Experimental
frictional heating of coal gouge at seismic slip rates: Evidence for
devolatilization and thermal pressurization of gouge fluids, Tectonophysics,
424, 109–118, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2006.07.007, 2006.
Okolo, G. N., Neomagus, H. W. J. P., Everson, R. C., Roberts, M. J., Bunt,
J. R., Sakurovs, R., and Mathews, J. P.: Chemical–structural properties of
South African bituminous coals: Insights from wide angle XRD–carbon
fraction analysis, ATR–FTIR, solid state 13C NMR, and HRTEM techniques,
Fuel, 158, 779–792, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.06.027, 2015.
Oohashi, K., Hirose, T., and Shimamoto, T.: Shear-induced graphitization of
carbonaceous materials during seismic fault motion: Experiments and possible
implications for fault mechanics, J. Struct. Geol., 33, 1122–1134,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2011.01.007, 2011.
Oohashi, K., Hirose, T., Kobayashi, K., and Shimamoto, T.: The occurrence of
graphite-bearing fault rocks in the 4 fault system, Japan: Origins and
implications for fault creep, J. Struct. Geol., 38, 39–50,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2011.10.011, 2012.
Oohashi, K., Hirose, T., and Shimamoto, T.: Graphite as a lubricating agent
in fault zones: An insight from low- to high-velocity friction experiments
on a mixed graphite-quartz gouge, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 118,
2067–2084, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrb.50175, 2013.
Öztaş, N. A. and Yürüm, Y.: Pyrolysis of Turkish Zonguldak
bituminous coal. Part 1. Effect of mineral matter, Fuel, 79, 1221–1227,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-2361(99)00255-0, 2000.
Pan, J., Lv, M., Bai, H., Hou, Q., Li, M., and Wang, Z.: Effects of
Metamorphism and Deformation on the Coal Macromolecular Structure by Laser
Raman Spectroscopy, Energy Fuels, 31, 1136–1146,
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b02176, 2017.
Potgieter-Vermaak, S., Maledi, N., Wagner, N., Van Heerden, J. H. P., Van
Grieken, R., and Potgieter, J. H.: Raman spectroscopy for the analysis of
coal: a review, J. Raman Spectrosc., 42, 123–129, https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.2636,
2011.
Rice, J. R.: Heating and weakening of faults during earthquake slip, J.
Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 111, B05311, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JB004006, 2006.
Ross, J. V. and Bustin, R. M.: The role of strain energy in creep
graphitization of anthracite, Nature, 343, 58–60,
https://doi.org/10.1038/343058a0, 1990.
Ross, J. V., Bustin, R. M., and Rouzaud, J. N.: Graphitization of high rank
coals – the role of shear strain: experimental considerations, Org.
Geochem., 17, 585–596, https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6380(91)90002-2, 1991.
Ruan, J. and Bhushan, B.: Frictional behavior of highly oriented pyrolytic
graphite, J. Appl. Phys., 76, 8117–8120, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.357861, 1994.
Ruina, A.: Slip instability and state variable friction laws, J. Geophys.
Res.-Sol. Ea., 88, 10359–10370, https://doi.org/10.1029/JB088iB12p10359, 1983.
Rutter, E. H., Hackston, A. J., Yeatman, E., Brodie, K. H., Mecklenburgh, J.,
and May, S. E.: Reduction of friction on geological faults by weak-phase
smearing, J. Struct. Geol., 51, 52–60, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2013.03.008, 2013.
Sadezky, A., Muckenhuber, H., Grothe, H., Niessner, R., and Pöschl, U.:
Raman microspectroscopy of soot and related carbonaceous materials: Spectral
analysis and structural information, Carbon, 43, 1731–1742,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2005.02.018, 2005.
Samuelson, J. and Spiers, C. J.: Fault friction and slip stability not
affected by CO2 storage: Evidence from short-term laboratory experiments on
North Sea reservoir sandstones and caprocks, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Con.,
11, S78–S90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2012.09.018, 2012.
Schito, A., Romano, C., Corrado, S., Grigo, D., and Poe, B.: Diagenetic
thermal evolution of organic matter by Raman spectroscopy, Org. Geochem.,
106, 57–67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2016.12.006, 2017.
Scholz, C. H.: Earthquakes and friction laws, Nature, 391, 37–42,
https://doi.org/10.1038/34097, 1998.
Scholz, C. H.: The Mechanics of Earthquakes and Faulting, 3rd Edn.,
Cambridge University Press, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316681473, 2019.
Siman-Tov, S., Aharonov, E., Sagy, A., and Emmanuel, S.: Nanograins form
carbonate fault mirrors, Geology, 41, 703–706, https://doi.org/10.1130/G34087.1,
2013.
Song, Y., Jiang, B., and Han, Y.: Macromolecular response to tectonic
deformation in low-rank tectonically deformed coals (TDCs), Fuel, 219,
279–287, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.01.133, 2018.
Song, Y., Jiang, B., and Qu, M.: Macromolecular evolution and structural
defects in tectonically deformed coals, Fuel, 236, 1432–1445,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.09.080, 2019.
Tembe, S., Lockner, D. A., and Wong, T.-F.: Effect of clay content and
mineralogy on frictional sliding behavior of simulated gouges: Binary and
ternary mixtures of quartz, illite, and montmorillonite, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 115, B03416, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JB006383, 2010.
Tuinstra, F. and Koenig, J. L.: Raman spectrum of graphite, J. Chem. Phys.,
53, 1126–30, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1674108, 1970.
Ulyanova, E. V., Molchanov, A. N., Prokhorov, I. Y., and Grinyov, V. G.: Fine
structure of Raman spectra in coals of different rank, Int. J. Coal Geol.,
121, 37–43, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.10.014, 2014.
Verberne, B. A., Spiers, C. J., Niemeijer, A. R., De Bresser, J. H. P., De
Winter, D. A. M., and Plümper, O.: Frictional Properties and
Microstructure of Calcite-Rich Fault Gouges Sheared at Sub-Seismic Sliding
Velocities, Pure Appl. Geophys., 171, 2617–2640,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-013-0760-0, 2014a.
Verberne, B. A., Plumper, O., de Winter, D. A. M., and Spiers, C. J.:
Superplastic nanofibrous slip zones control seismogenic fault friction,
Science, 346, 1342–1344, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1259003, 2014b.
Wang, L., Cao, D., Peng, Y., Ding, Z., and Li, Y.: Strain-induced
graphitization mechanism of coal-based graphite from lutang, hunan province,
china, Minerals, 9, 617, https://doi.org/10.3390/min9100617, 2019.
Wang, T., Jiang, Y., Zhan, S., and Wang, C.: Frictional sliding tests on
combined coal-rock samples, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, 6, 280–286, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.03.007, 2014.
Westbrook, G. K., Kusznir, N. J., Browitt, C. W. A., and Holdsworth, B. K.:
Seismicity induced by coal mining in Stoke-on-Trent (U.K.), Eng. Geol.,
16, 225–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(80)90017-4, 1980.
Wilkins, R. W. T., Boudou, R., Sherwood, N., and Xiao, X.: Thermal maturity
evaluation from inertinites by Raman spectroscopy: The “RaMM” technique,
Int. J. Coal Geol., 128–129, 143–152, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2014.03.006,
2014.
Wilks, K. R., Mastalerz, M., Bustin, R. M., and Ross, J. V.: The role of
shear strain in the graphitization of a high-volatile bituminous and an
anthracitic coal, Int. J. Coal Geol., 22, 247–277,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162(93)90029-A, 1993.
Xu, R., Li, H., Guo, C., and Hou, Q.: The mechanisms of gas generation during
coal deformation: Preliminary observations, Fuel, 117, 326–330,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.09.035, 2014.
Yen, T. F., Erdman, J. G., and Pollack, S. S.: Investigation of the
Structure of Petroleum Asphaltenes by X-Ray Diffraction, Anal. Chem.,
33, 1587–1594, https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60179a039, 1961.
Zhang, W., Chen, S., Han, F., and Wu, D.: An experimental study on the
evolution of aggregate structure in coals of different ranks by in situ
X-ray diffractometry, Anal. Methods, 7, 8720–8726,
https://doi.org/10.1039/C5AY01922B, 2015.
Zhang, Y. and Li, Z.: Raman spectroscopic study of chemical structure and
thermal maturity of vitrinite from a suite of Australia coals, Fuel, 241,
188–198, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.12.037, 2019.
Zhao, L., Guo, H., and Ma, Q.: Study on gaseous products distributions during
coal pyrolysis, Coal Convers., 30, 5–9, 2007 (in Chinese).
Short summary
Coal is an important source rock for natural gas recovery, and its frictional properties play a role in induced seismicity. We performed experiments to investigate the frictional properties of bituminous coal, and our results show that the frictional strength of coal became significantly weakened with slip displacement, from a peak value of 0.5 to a steady-state value of 0.3. This may be caused by the development of shear bands with internal shear-enhanced molecular structure.
Coal is an important source rock for natural gas recovery, and its frictional properties play a...
