Articles | Volume 16, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-503-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-503-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
23 Jun 2025
Research article |
| 23 Jun 2025
| 23 Jun 2025
Relict landscape evolution and fault reactivation in the eastern Tian Shan: insights from the Harlik Mountains
Zihao Zhao
Institute of Geological Survey, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
Center for Global Tectonics, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
Guocan Wang
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Institute of Geological Survey, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
Center for Global Tectonics, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
Peter van der Beek
Institute of Geosciences, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
Yabo Zhou
PowerChina Huadong Engineering Corporation Limited, Hangzhou, 310012, China
Cheng Ma
Center for Global Tectonics, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
Related authors
No articles found.
Maxime Bernard, Pieter van der Beek, Cody Colleps, Xavier Robert, Kerry Gallagher, William Guenthner, Julien Amalberti, and Georgina E. King
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2286, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2286, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Geochronology (GChron).
Short summary
Short summary
Pecube, a 3D thermal-kinematic software that predicts thermochronometer data, has been widely used to constrain the past evolution of mountain belts, but its accessibility and application is still limited. This work overcomes this limitation by offering a graphical user interface to Pecube, PecubeGUI, and by broadening its application to a wider range of tectonic settings through the implementation thermochronometer prediction models in line with the most recent research developments.
Maxime Bernard, Georgina E. King, Pieter van der Beek, Isabel Wapenhans, Lingxiao Gong, and Xavier Robert
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2508, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2508, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Geochronology (GChron).
Short summary
Short summary
Thermochronometry data inversions using the Pecube software are useful to constrain the past evolution of mountain belts. However, configuring the neighbourhood algorithm for Pecube inversions remains challenging for new Pecube users. This contribution aims to provide intuition and guidelines for setting up NA-Pecube inversions to support informed decision-making. It forms part of a broader effort to improve the accessibility of Pecube to new users.
Lingxiao Gong, Peter van der Beek, Taylor F. Schildgen, Edward R. Sobel, Simone Racano, Apolline Mariotti, and Fergus McNab
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 973–994, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-973-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-973-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We choose the large Saryjaz river from South Tian Shan to analyse topographic and fluvial metrics. By quantifying the spatial distribution of major metrics and comparing with modelling patterns, we suggest that the observed transience was triggered by a big capture event during the Plio-Pleistocene and potentially affected by both tectonic and climate factors. This conclusion underlines the importance of local contingent factors in driving drainage development.
Marion Roger, Arjan de Leeuw, Peter van der Beek, Laurent Husson, Edward R. Sobel, Johannes Glodny, and Matthias Bernet
Solid Earth, 14, 153–179, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-153-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-153-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We study the construction of the Ukrainian Carpathians with LT thermochronology (AFT, AHe, and ZHe) and stratigraphic analysis. QTQt thermal models are combined with burial diagrams to retrieve the timing and magnitude of sedimentary burial, tectonic burial, and subsequent exhumation of the wedge's nappes from 34 to ∼12 Ma. Out-of-sequence thrusting and sediment recycling during wedge building are also identified. This elucidates the evolution of a typical wedge in a roll-back subduction zone.
Peter van der Beek and Taylor F. Schildgen
Geochronology, 5, 35–49, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-5-35-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-5-35-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Thermochronometric data can provide unique insights into the patterns of rock exhumation and the driving mechanisms of landscape evolution. Several well-established thermal models allow for a detailed exploration of how cooling rates evolved in a limited area or along a transect, but more regional analyses have been challenging. We present age2exhume, a thermal model that can be used to rapidly provide a synoptic overview of exhumation rates from large regional thermochronologic datasets.
Coline Ariagno, Caroline Le Bouteiller, Peter van der Beek, and Sébastien Klotz
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 81–96, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-81-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-81-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The
critical zonenear the surface of the Earth is where geologic substrate, erosion, climate, and life meet and interact. This study focuses on mechanisms of physical weathering that produce loose sediment and make it available for transport. We show that the sediment export from a monitored catchment in the French Alps is modulated by frost-weathering processes and is therefore sensitive to complex modifications in a warming climate.
Cited articles
Allen, M. B. and Vincent, S. J.: Fault reactivation in the Junggar region, northwest China: The role of basement structures during Mesozoic–Cenozoic compression, J. Geol. Soc., 154, 151–155, https://doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.154.1.0151, 1997.
Allen, M. B., Alsop, G. I., and Zhemchuzhnikov, V. G.: Dome and basin refolding and transpressive inversion along the Karatau Fault System, southern Kazakstan, J. Geol. Soc., 158, 83–95, https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs.158.1.83, 2001.
Andjic, G., Zhou, R. J., Jonell, T. N., and Aitchison, J. C.: A single Dras–Kohistan–Ladakh Arc revealed by volcaniclastic records, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 23, 22, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021gc010042, 2022.
Bande, A., Sobel, E. R., Mikolaichuk, A., and Torres Acosta, V.: Talas–Fergana Fault Cenozoic timing of deformation and its relation to Pamir indentation, Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., 427, 295, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP427.1, 2015.
Bande, A., Sobel, E. R., Mikolaichuk, A., Schmidt, A., and Stockli, D. F.: Exhumation history of the western Kyrgyz Tien Shan: Implications for intramontane basin formation, Tectonics, 36, 163–180, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016tc004284, 2017.
Bazhenov, M. L.: Cretaceous paleomagnetism of the Fergana Basin and adjacent ranges, Central Asia – Tectonic implications, Tectonophysics, 221, 251–267, https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(93)90335-h, 1993.
Bullen, M. E., Burbank, D. W., Garver, J. I., and Abdrakhmatov, K. Y.: Late Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the northwestern Tien Shan: New age estimates for the initiation of mountain building, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 113, 1544–1559, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(2001)113<1544:Lcteot>2.0.Co;2, 2001.
Burbank, D. W., McLean, J. K., Bullen, M., Abdrakhmatov, K. Y., and Miller, M. M.: Partitioning of intermontane basins by thrust-related folding, Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan, Basin Res., 11, 75–92, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2117.1999.00086.x, 1999.
Burchfiel, B. C., Brown, E. T., Deng, Q. D., Feng, X. Y., Li, J., Molnar, P., Shi, J. B., Wu, Z. M., and You, H. C.: Crustal shortening on the margins of the Tien Shan, Xinjiang, China, Int. Geol. Rev., 41, 665–700, https://doi.org/10.1080/00206819909465164, 1999.
Calvet, M., Gunnell, Y., and Farines, B.: Flat-topped mountain ranges: Their global distribution and value for understanding the evolution of mountain topography, Geomorphology, 241, 255–291, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.04.015, 2015.
Cao, K., Tian, Y., van der Beek, P., Wang, G., Shen, T., Reiners, P., Bernet, M., and Husson, L.: Southwestward growth of plateau surfaces in eastern Tibet, Earth-Sci. Rev., 232, 104160, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104160, 2022.
Cao, L., Shao, L., Qiao, P., Zhao, Z., and van Hinsbergen, D. J. J.: Early Miocene birth of modern Pearl River recorded low-relief, high-elevation surface formation of SE Tibetan Plateau, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 496, 120–131, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2018.05.039, 2018.
Chang, J., Li, D., Min, K., Qiu, N. S., Xiao, Y., Wu, H., and Liu, N.: Cenozoic deformation of the Kalpin fold-and-thrust belt, southern Chinese Tian Shan: New insights from low-T thermochronology and sandbox modeling, Tectonophysics, 766, 416–432, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2019.06.018, 2019.
Charreau, J., Blard, P.-H., Lavé, J., Dominguez, S., and Li, W. S.: Unsteady topography in the eastern Tianshan due to imbalance between denudation and crustal thickening, Tectonophysics, 848, 229702, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2022.229702, 2023.
Charreau, J., Saint-Carlier, D., Dominguez, S., Lavé, J., Blard, P.-H., Avouac, J.-P., Jolivet, M., Chen, Y., Wang, S., Brown, N. D., Malatesta, L. C., and Rhodes, E.: Denudation outpaced by crustal thickening in the eastern Tianshan, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 479, 179–191, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2017.09.025, 2017.
Charvet, J., Shu, L. S., Laurent-Charvet, S., Wang, B., Faure, M., Cluzel, D., Chen, Y., and de Jong, K.: Palaeozoic tectonic evolution of the Tianshan belt, NW China, Sci. China Earth Sci., 54, 166–184, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-010-4138-1, 2011.
Chen, H. L., Lin, X. B., Cheng, X. G., Gong, J. F., Bian, S., Wu, L., Jia, C. Z., Yang, S. F., Guo, Z. J., and Jia, D.: Two-phase intracontinental deformation mode in the context of India–Eurasia collision: insights from a structural analysis of the West Kunlun-Southern Junggar transect along the NW margin of the Tibetan Plateau, J. Geol. Soc., 179, 14, https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs2021-029, 2022.
Chen, X., Yin, A., Gehrels, G. E., Cowgill, E. S., Grove, M., Harrison, T. M., and Wang, X.: Two phases of Mesozoic north–south extension in the eastern Altyn Tagh range, northern Tibetan Plateau, Tectonics, 22, 2001TC001336, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001TC001336, 2003.
Chen, Y., Wang, G. C., Zhao, X., Wang, Y. B., Ji, J. L., Cao, K., Shen, T. Y., Zhang, P., and Wang, A.: Evolution of the Barkol Basin, eastern Tian Shan, and its geodynamic background, Int. J. Earth Sci., 108, 1253–1271, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-019-01704-y, 2019.
Chen, Y., Wang, G. C., Kapp, P., Shen, T. Y., Zhang, P., Zhu, C. Y., and Cao, K.: Episodic exhumation and related tectonic controlling during Mesozoic in the Eastern Tian Shan, Xinjiang, northwestern China, Tectonophysics, 796, 228647, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2020.228647, 2020a.
Chen, Y., Wang, G. C., Shen, T. Y., Zhang, P., Sotiriou, P., and Zhu, C. Y.: Tectono-geomorphic evolution of Harlik Mountain in the Eastern Tian Shan, insight from thermochronological data and geomorphic analysis, Geol. J., 55, 7322–7334, https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3951, 2020b.
Chen, Z. L., Wang, Z. X., Han, F. B., Zhang, W. G., Zhang, Q., Zhou, Z. J., Wang, X. H., Xiao, W. F., Han, S. Q., Yu, X. Q., Sun, Y., Nurgazy, T., Latyshev, N., and Zailabidin, H.: Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic uplift, deformation, and erosion of the SW Tianshan Mountains in Kyrgyzstan and Western China, Int. Geol. Rev., 60, 1019–1037, https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2017.1365018, 2018.
China Geological Survey: Geological map of Chinese Tianshan and adjacent areas, scale 1:1 000 000, Xi'an Institute of Geology and Mineral Resource, Xi'an, China, Geological Publishing House, GS(2006)463, 2007.
Clark, M. K., Royden, L. H., Whipple, K. X., Burchfiel, B. C., Zhang, X., and Tang, W.: Use of a regional, relict landscape to measure vertical deformation of the eastern Tibetan Plateau, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 111, F03002, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JF000294, 2006.
Cunningham, D.: Structural and topographic characteristics of restraining bend mountain ranges of the Altai, Gobi Altai and easternmost Tien Shan, Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., 290, 219, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP290.7, 2007.
Cunningham, D.: Mountain building processes in intracontinental oblique deformation belts: Lessons from the Gobi Corridor, Central Asia, J. Struct. Geol., 46, 255–282, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2012.08.010, 2013.
Cunningham, D. and Zhang, J.: China | Mongolia: Mesozoic–Cenozoic, Encyclopedia of Geology, 509–525, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102908-4.00164-8, 2021.
Cunningham, D., Owen, L. A., Snee, L. W., and Li, J. L.: Structural framework of a major intracontinental orogenic termination zone: the easternmost Tien Shan, China, J. Geol. Soc., 160, 575–590, https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-764902-122, 2003.
De Grave, J. and Van den Haute, P.: Denudation and cooling of the Lake Teletskoye Region in the Altai Mountains (South Siberia) as revealed by apatite fission-track thermochronology, Tectonophysics, 349, 145–159, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0040-1951(02)00051-3, 2002.
De Grave, J., Buslov, M. M., and Van den Haute, P.: Distant effects of India–Eurasia convergence and Mesozoic intracontinental deformation in Central Asia: Constraints from apatite fission-track thermochronology, J. Asian Earth Sci., 29, 188–204, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.03.001, 2007.
De Grave, J., Van den Haute, P., Buslov, M. M., Dehandschutter, B., and Glorie, S.: Apatite fission-track thermochronology applied to the Chulyshman Plateau, Siberian Altai Region, Radiat. Meas., 43, 38–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radmeas.2007.11.068, 2008.
De Grave, J., Glorie, S., Buslov, M. M., Izmer, A., Fournier-Carrie, A., Batalev, V. Y., Vanhaecke, F., Elburg, M., and Van den Haute, P.: The thermo-tectonic history of the Song-Kul plateau, Kyrgyz Tien Shan: Constraints by apatite and titanite thermochronometry and zircon U/Pb dating, Gondwana Res., 20, 745–763, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2011.03.011, 2011.
De Grave, J., Glorie, S., Ryabinin, A., Zhimulev, F., Buslov, M. M., Izmer, A., Elburg, M., Vanhaecke, F., and Van den Haute, P.: Late Palaeozoic and Meso-Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the southern Kyrgyz Tien Shan: Constraints from multi-method thermochronology in the Trans-Alai, Turkestan-Alai segment and the southeastern Ferghana Basin, J. Asian Earth Sci., 44, 149–168, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.04.019, 2012.
De Grave, J., Glorie, S., Buslov, M. M., Stockli, D. F., McWilliams, M. O., Batalev, V. Y., and Van den Haute, P.: Thermo-tectonic history of the Issyk-Kul basement (Kyrgyz Northern Tien Shan, Central Asia), Gondwana Res., 23, 998–1020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2012.06.014, 2013.
De Grave, J., De Pelsmaeker, E., Zhimulev, F. I., Glorie, S., Buslov, M. M., and Van den Haute, P.: Meso-Cenozoic building of the northern Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Thermotectonic history of the Tuva region, Tectonophysics, 621, 44–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2014.01.039, 2014.
De Pelsmaeker, E., Glorie, S., Buslov, M. M., Zhimulev, F. I., Poujol, M., Korobkin, V. V., Vanhaecke, F., Vetrov, E. V., and De Grave, J.: Late-Paleozoic emplacement and Meso-Cenozoic reactivation of the southern Kazakhstan granitoid basement, Tectonophysics, 662, 416–433, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.06.014, 2015.
De Pelsmaeker, E., Jolivet, M., Laborde, A., Poujol, M., Robin, C., Zhimulev, F. I., Nachtergaele, S., Glorie, S., De Clercq, S., Batalev, V. Y., and De Grave, J.: Source-to-sink dynamics in the Kyrgyz Tien Shan from the Jurassic to the Paleogene: Insights from sedimentological and detrital zircon U–Pb analyses, Gondwana Res., 54, 180–204, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2017.09.004, 2018.
Delvaux, D. and Sperner, B.: New aspects of tectonic stress inversion with reference to the TENSOR program, Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., 212, 75, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.212.01.06, 2003.
Deng, X.-H., Wang, J.-B., Pirajno, F., Wang, Y.-W., Li, Y.-C., Li, C., Zhou, L.-M., and Chen, Y.-J.: Re–Os dating of chalcopyrite from selected mineral deposits in the Kalatag district in the eastern Tianshan Orogen, China, Ore Geol. Rev., 77, 72–81, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.01.014, 2016.
Ding, L., Kapp, P., Cai, F., Garzione, C. N., Xiong, Z., Wang, H., and Wang, C.: Timing and mechanisms of Tibetan Plateau uplift, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ., 3, 652–667, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00318-4, 2022.
Ding, Y., Shen, T., Wang, G., and Ji, J.: Sedimentary and heavy mineral records for the Oligocene–Miocene exhumation of the easternmost Tianshan, J. Earth Sci., 35, 449–461, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-022-1757-3, 2024.
Donskaya, T. V., Windley, B. F., Mazukabzov, A. M., Kroener, A., Sklyarov, E. V., Gladkochub, D. P., Ponomarchuk, V. A., Badarch, G., Reichow, M. K., and Hegner, E.: Age and evolution of late Mesozoic metamorphic core complexes in southern Siberia and northern Mongolia, J. Geol. Soc., 165, 405–421, https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492006-162, 2008.
Dumitru, T. A., Da, Z., Chang, E. Z., Graham, S. A., and Carroll, A. R.: Uplift, exhumation, and deformation in the Chinese Tian Shan, Geol. Soc. Am. Mem., 194, 71–99, 2001.
Eberth, D. A., Brinkman, D. B., Chen, P.-J., Yuan, F.-T., Wu, S.-Z., Li, G., and Cheng, X.-S.: Sequence stratigraphy, paleoclimate patterns, and vertebrate fossil preservation in Jurassic-Cretaceous strata of the Junggar Basin, Xinjiang Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China, Can. J. Earth Sci., 38, 1627–1644, https://doi.org/10.1139/e01-067, 2001.
England, P. and Molnar, P.: Surface uplift, uplift of rocks, and exhumation of rocks, Geology, 18, 1173–1177, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<1173:suuora>2.3.co;2, 1990.
Flint, J. J.: Stream gradient as a function of order, magnitude, and discharge, Water Resour. Res., 10, 969–973, https://doi.org/10.1029/WR010i005p00969, 1974.
Forte, A. M. and Whipple, K. X.: Short communication: The Topographic Analysis Kit (TAK) for TopoToolbox, Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 87–95, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-87-2019, 2019.
Gailleton, B., Mudd, S. M., Clubb, F. J., Grieve, S. W. D., and Hurst, M. D.: Impact of changing concavity indices on channel steepness and divide migration metrics, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 126, e2020JF006060, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JF006060, 2021.
Galbraith, R. F. and Laslett, G. M.: Statistical models for mixed fission track ages, Nucl. Tracks Rad. Meas., 21, 459–470, https://doi.org/10.1016/1359-0189(93)90185-C, 1993.
Gallagher, K.: Transdimensional inverse thermal history modeling for quantitative thermochronology, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 117, 16, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011jb008825, 2012.
Gao, H. L., Liu, G. X., He, J. G., Tian, M. M., and Che, Y. F.: Mesozoic–Cenozoic uplift exhumation history of East Tianshan: Evidence from apatite fission track, Earth Sci. Front., 21, 249–260 (in Chinese with English abstract), 2014.
Gillespie, J., Glorie, S., Jepson, G., Zhang, Z. Y., Xiao, W. J., Danisik, M., and Collins, A. S.: Differential exhumation and crustal tilting in the easternmost Tianshan (Xinjiang, China), revealed by low-temperature thermochronology, Tectonics, 36, 2142–2158, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017tc004574, 2017a.
Gillespie, J., Glorie, S., Xiao, W. J., Zhang, Z. Y., Collins, A. S., Evans, N., McInnes, B., and De Grave, J.: Mesozoic reactivation of the Beishan, southern Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Insights from low-temperature thermochronology, Gondwana Res., 43, 107–122, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2015.10.004, 2017b.
Gillespie, J., Glorie, S., Jepson, G., Zhimulev, F., Gurevich, D., Danisik, M., and Collins, A. S.: Inherited structure as a control on late Paleozoic and Mesozoic exhumation of the Tarbagatai Mountains, southeastern Kazakhstan, J. Geol. Soc., https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs2020-121, 2021.
Gleadow, A. J. W., Belton, D. X., Kohn, B. P., and Brown, R. W.: Fission-track dating of phosphate minerals and the thermochronology of apatite, Rev. Min. Geochem., 48, 579–630, https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2002.48.16, 2002.
Glorie, S. and De Grave, J.: Exhuming the Meso-Cenozoic Kyrgyz Tianshan and Siberian Altai-Sayan: A review based on low-temperature thermochronology, Geosci. Front., 7, 155–170, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2015.04.003, 2016.
Glorie, S., De Grave, J., Buslov, M. M., Elburg, M. A., Stockli, D. F., Gerdes, A., and Van den Haute, P.: Multi-method chronometric constraints on the evolution of the Northern Kyrgyz Tien Shan granitoids (Central Asian Orogenic Belt): From emplacement to exhumation, J. Asian Earth Sci., 38, 131–146, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2009.12.009, 2010.
Glorie, S., De Grave, J., Buslov, M. M., Zhimulev, F. I., Stockli, D. F., Batalev, V. Y., Izmer, A., Van den Haute, P., Vanhaecke, F., and Elburg, M. A.: Tectonic history of the Kyrgyz South Tien Shan (Atbashi–Inylchek) suture zone: The role of inherited structures during deformation-propagation, Tectonics, 30, TC6016, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011tc002949, 2011.
Glorie, S., De Grave, J., Buslov, M. M., Zhimulev, F. I., Elburg, M. A., and Van den Haute, P.: Structural control on Meso-Cenozoic tectonic reactivation and denudation in the Siberian Altai: Insights from multi-method thermochronometry, Tectonophysics, 544, 75–92, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.03.035, 2012a.
Glorie, S., De Grave, J., Delvaux, D., Buslov, M. M., Zhimulev, F. I., Vanhaecke, F., Elburg, M. A., and Van den Haute, P.: Tectonic history of the Irtysh shear zone (NE Kazakhstan): New constraints from zircon U/Pb dating, apatite fission track dating and palaeostress analysis, J. Asian Earth Sci., 45, 138–149, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.09.024, 2012b.
Glorie, S., Otasevic, A., Gillespie, J., Jepson, G., Danisik, M., Zhimulev, F. I., Gurevich, D., Zhang, Z., Song, D., and Xiao, W.: Thermo-tectonic history of the Junggar Alatau within the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (SE Kazakhstan, NW China): Insights from integrated apatite U/Pb, fission track and (U–Th)
Glorie, S., Nixon, A. L., Jepson, G., Gillespie, J., Warren, C., Meeuws, F., Simpson, A., and Xiao, W.: Meso-Cenozoic tectonic history of the Altai: New insights from apatite U–Pb and fission track thermochronology for the Fuyun Area (Xinjiang, China), Tectonics, 42, e2022TC007692, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022TC007692, 2023.
Gong, L., Kohn, B. P., Zhang, Z. Y., Xiao, B., Wu, L., and Chen, H. Y.: Exhumation and preservation of Paleozoic porphyry Cu deposits: Insights from the Yandong Deposit, southern Central Asian Orogenic Belt, Econ. Geol., 116, 607–627, https://doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.4812, 2021.
Gong, L., van der Beek, P., Schildgen, T. F., Sobel, E. R., Racano, S., Mariotti, A., and McNab, F.: Drainage rearrangement in an intra-continental mountain belt: a case study from the central South Tian Shan, Kyrgyzstan, Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 973–994, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-973-2024, 2024.
Graham, S. A., Hendrix, M. S., Johnson, C. L., Badamgarav, D., Badarch, G., Amory, J., Porter, M., Barsbold, R., Webb, L. E., and Hacker, B. R.: Sedimentary record and tectonic implications of Mesozoic rifting in southeast Mongolia, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 113, 1560–1579, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(2001)113<1560:Sratio>2.0.Co;2, 2001.
Guan, X. T., Wu, C. D., Zhou, T. Q., Tang, X. Y., Ma, J., and Fang, Y. N.: Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequence stratigraphy and allogenic controls in proximal terrestrial environments (Southern Junggar Basin, NW China), Geol. J., 56, 4038–4062, https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.4132, 2021.
Haider, V. L., Kropacek, J., Dunkl, I., Wagner, B., and von Eynatten, H.: Identification of peneplains by multi-parameter assessment of digital elevation models, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 40, 1477–1492, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3729, 2015.
Hasebe, N., Barbarand, J., Jarvis, K., Carter, A., and Hurford, A. J.: Apatite fission-track chronometry using laser ablation ICP-MS, Chem. Geol., 207, 135–145, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2004.01.007, 2004.
Hasebe, N., Tamura, A., and Arai, S.: Zeta equivalent fission-track dating using LA-ICP-MS and examples with simultaneous U–Pb dating, Isl. Arc, 22, 280–291, https://doi.org/10.1111/iar.12040, 2013.
He, Z., Wang, B., Ni, X., De Grave, J., Scaillet, S., Chen, Y., Liu, J., and Zhu, X.: Structural and kinematic evolution of strike-slip shear zones around and in the central Tianshan: Insights for eastward tectonic wedging in the southwest Central Asian Orogenic Belt, J. Struct. Geol., 144, 104279, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2021.104279, 2021a.
He, Z., Wang, B., Glorie, S., Su, W., Ni, X., Jepson, G., Liu, J., Zhong, L., Gillespie, J., and De Grave, J.: Mesozoic building of the Eastern Tianshan and East Junggar (NW China) revealed by low-temperature thermochronology, Gondwana Res., 103, 37–53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2021.11.013, 2022a.
He, Z., Glorie, S., Wang, F., Zhu, W., Fonseca, A., Su, W., Zhong, L., Zhu, X., and De Grave, J.: A re-evaluation of the Meso-Cenozoic thermo-tectonic evolution of Bogda Shan (Tian Shan, NW China) based on new basement and detrital apatite fission track thermochronology, Int. Geol. Rev., 65, 2093–2112, https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2022.2121946, 2023.
He, Z., Song, S., Wang, F., Zhu, W., Shen, X., Glorie, S., Liang, Y., Zhong, L., and De Grave, J.: Late Mesozoic intra-continental reactivation of the southern Altai, central Asia, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 137, 2287–2302, https://doi.org/10.1130/B37905.1, 2024.
He, Z. Y., Wang, B., Nachtergaele, S., Glorie, S., Ni, X., Su, W., Cai, D., Liu, J., and De Grave, J.: Long-term topographic evolution of the Central Tianshan (NW China) constrained by low-temperature thermochronology, Tectonophysics, 817, 229066, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2021.229066, 2021b.
He, Z. Y., Wang, B., Su, W. B., Glorie, S., Ni, X. H., Liu, J. S., Cai, D. X., Zhong, L. L., and De Grave, J.: Meso-Cenozoic thermo-tectonic evolution of the Yili block within the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (NW China): Insights from apatite fission track thermochronology, Tectonophysics, 823, 17, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2021.229194, 2022b.
Hendrix, M. S., Graham, S. A., Carroll, A. R., Sobel, E. R., McKnight, C. L., Schulein, B. J., and Wang, Z. X.: Sedimentary record and climatic implications of recurrent deformation in the Tian-Shan – evidence from Mesozoic strata of the north Tarim, south Junggar, and Turpan basins, northwest China, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 104, 53–79, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1992)104<0053:Sracio>2.3.Co;2, 1992.
Hetzel, R., Dunkl, I., Haider, V., Strobl, M., von Eynatten, H., Ding, L., and Frei, D.: Peneplain formation in southern Tibet predates the India-Asia collision and plateau uplift, Geology, 39, 983–986, https://doi.org/10.1130/g32069.1, 2011.
Hu, X., Ma, A., Xue, W., Garzanti, E., Cao, Y., Li, S.-M., Sun, G., and Lai, W.: Exploring a lost ocean in the Tibetan Plateau: Birth, growth, and demise of the Bangong-Nujiang Ocean, Earth-Sci. Rev., 229, 104031, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104031, 2022.
Hui, J., Cheng, H., Zhang, J., Zhang, K., Qu, J., and Zhang, B.: Early cretaceous continent basalts in the Alxa block, NW China: Geochronology, geochemistry, and tectonic implications, Int. Geol. Rev., 63, 882–899, https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2020.1734974, 2021.
Jaiswara, N. K., Pandey, P., and Pandey, A. K.: Mio-Pliocene piracy, relict landscape and drainage reorganization in the Namcha Barwa syntaxis zone of eastern Himalaya, Sci. Rep., 9, 17585, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-54052-x, 2019.
Jepson, G., Glorie, S., Konopelko, D., Gillespie, J., Danisik, M., Mirkamalov, R., Mamadjanov, Y., and Collins, A. S.: Low-temperature thermochronology of the Chatkal-Kurama terrane (Uzbekistan-Tajikistan): Insights into the Meso-Cenozoic thermal history of the Western Tian Shan, Tectonics, 37, 3954–3969, https://doi.org/10.1029/2017tc004878, 2018a.
Jepson, G., Glorie, S., Konopelko, D., Mirkamalov, R., Danisik, M., and Collins, A. S.: The low-temperature thermo-tectonic evolution of the western Tian Shan, Uzbekistan, Gondwana Res., 64, 122–136, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2018.08.003, 2018b.
Jepson, G., Glorie, S., Konopelko, D., Gillespie, J., Danisik, M., Evans, N. J., Mamadjanov, Y., and Collins, A. S.: Thermochronological insights into the structural contact between the Tian Shan and Pamirs, Tajikistan, Terra Nova, 30, 95–104, https://doi.org/10.1111/ter.12313, 2018c.
Jepson, G., Carrapa, B., Gillespie, J., Feng, R., DeCelles, P. G., Kapp, P., Tabor, C. R., and Zhu, J.: Climate as the great equalizer of continental-scale erosion, Geophys. Res. Lett., 48, e2021GL095008, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL095008, 2021a.
Jepson, G., Glorie, S., Khudoley, A. K., Malyshev, S. V., Gillespie, J., Glasmacher, U. A., Carrapa, B., Soloviev, A. V., and Collins, A. S.: The Mesozoic exhumation history of the Karatau-Talas range, western Tian Shan, Kazakhstan–Kyrgyzstan, Tectonophysics, 814, 228977, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2021.228977, 2021b.
Ji, H. J., Tao, H. F., Wang, Q., Ma, D. X., and Hao, L. W.: Petrography, geochemistry, and geochronology of Lower Jurassic sedimentary rocks from the Northern Tianshan (West Bogda area), Northwest China: Implications for provenance and tectonic evolution, Geol. J., 54, 1688–1714, https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3263, 2019.
Jia, Y. Y., Fu, B. H., Jolivet, M., and Zheng, S.: Cenozoic tectono-geomorphological growth of the SW Chinese Tian Shan: Insight from AFT and detrital zircon U–Pb data, J. Asian Earth Sci., 111, 395–413, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.06.023, 2015.
Jiang, Y., Lu, H., Yang, R., Pang, L., Jiao, R., Wang, Y., Pang, J., and Li, Y.: Two-stage exhumation, uplift, and basinward propagation of the Tian Shan during the late Cenozoic, Earth-Sci. Rev., 256, 104868, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2024.104868, 2024.
Jolivet, M.: Mesozoic tectonic and topographic evolution of Central Asia and Tibet: a preliminary synthesis, Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., 427, 19–55, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP427.2, 2017.
Jolivet, M., Ritz, J. F., Vassallo, R., Larroque, C., Braucher, R., Todbileg, M., Chauvet, A., Sue, C., Arnaud, N., De Vicente, R., Arzhanikova, A., and Arzhanikov, S.: Mongolian summits: An uplifted, flat, old but still preserved erosion surface, Geology, 35, 871–874, https://doi.org/10.1130/g23758a.1, 2007.
Jolivet, M., De Boisgrollier, T., Petit, C., Fournier, M., Sankov, V. A., Ringenbach, J. C., Byzov, L., Miroshnichenko, A. I., Kovalenko, S. N., and Anisimova, S. V.: How old is the Baikal Rift Zone? Insight from apatite fission track thermochronology, Tectonics, 28, 21, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008tc002404, 2009.
Jolivet, M., Dominguez, S., Charreau, J., Chen, Y., Li, Y. G., and Wang, Q. C.: Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonic history of the central Chinese Tian Shan: Reactivated tectonic structures and active deformation, Tectonics, 29, TC6019, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010tc002712, 2010.
Jolivet, M., Barrier, L., Dauteuil, O., Laborde, A., Li, Q., Reichenbacher, B., Popescu, S. M., Sha, J. G., and Guo, Z. J.: Late Cretaceous-Palaeogene topography of the Chinese Tian Shan: New insights from geomorphology and sedimentology, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 499, 95–106, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2018.07.004, 2018.
Kapp, P., DeCelles, P. G., Gehrels, G. E., Heizier, M., and Ding, L.: Geological records of the Lhasa-Qiangtang and Indo-Asian collisions in the Nima area of central Tibet, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 119, 917–932, https://doi.org/10.1130/B26033.1, 2007.
Kassner, A., Ratschbacher, L., Jonckheere, R., Enkelmann, E., Khan, J., Sonntag, B. L., Gloaguen, R., Gadoev, M., and Oimahmadov, I.: Cenozoic intracontinental deformation and exhumation at the northwestern tip of the India-Asia collision, southwestern Tian Shan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, Tectonics, 35, 2171–2194, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015tc003897, 2016.
Ketcham, R. A., Carter, A., Donelick, R. A., Barbarand, J., and Hurford, A. J.: Improved modeling of fission-track annealing in apatite, Am. Mineral., 92, 799–810, https://doi.org/10.2138/am.2007.2281, 2007.
Kirby, E. and Whipple, K.: Quantifying differential rock-uplift rates via stream profile analysis, Geology, 29, 415–418, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0415:QDRURV>2.0.CO;2, 2001.
Kirby, E. and Whipple, K. X.: Expression of active tectonics in erosional landscapes, J. Struct. Geol., 44, 54–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2012.07.009, 2012.
Lague, D.: The stream power river incision model: Evidence, theory and beyond, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 39, 38–61, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3462, 2014.
Lai, W., Hu, X. M., Garzanti, E., Xu, Y. W., Ma, A. L., and Li, W.: Early Cretaceous sedimentary evolution of the northern Lhasa terrane and the timing of initial Lhasa-Qiangtang collision, Gondwana Res., 73, 136–152, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2019.03.016, 2019.
Li, S., Guilmette, C., Ding, L., Xu, Q., Fu, J. J., and Yue, Y. H.: Provenance of Mesozoic clastic rocks within the Bangong-Nujiang suture zone, central Tibet: Implications for the age of the initial Lhasa-Qiangtang collision, J. Asian Earth Sci., 147, 469–484, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2017.08.019, 2017.
Liu, D.-L., Shi, R.-D., Ding, L., and Zou, H.-B.: Late Cretaceous transition from subduction to collision along the Bangong-Nujiang Tethys: New volcanic constraints from central Tibet, Lithos, 296–299, 452–470, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2017.11.012, 2018.
Liu, F. L., Gao, H. S., Pan, B. T., Li, Z. M., and Su, H.: Quantitative analysis of planation surfaces of the upper Yangtze River in the Sichuan-Yunnan Region, Southwest China, Front. Earth Sci., 13, 55–74, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11707-018-0707-y, 2019.
Liu, K., Chen, X., Zuza, A., Shao, Z., Qin, X., Han, L., Zhang, Y., Yu, W., Wang, Z., Shi, X., Li, B., and Wang, Y.: The Late Mesozoic intracontinental contraction-extension transition in the Beishan Fold-Thrust Belt, Central Asia: Constraints from structural analysis and apatite (U–Th)
Liu-Zeng, J., Tapponnier, P., Gaudemer, Y., and Ding, L.: Quantifying landscape differences across the Tibetan plateau: Implications for topographic relief evolution, J. Geophys. Res., 113, 2007JF000897, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JF000897, 2008.
Lu, H. H., Chang, Y. A., Wang, W., and Zhou, Z. Y.: Rapid exhumation of the Tianshan Mountains since the early Miocene: Evidence from combined apatite fission track and (U–Th)
Ma, A., Hu, X., Garzanti, E., Han, Z., and Lai, W.: Sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the southern Qiangtang basin: Implications for the Lhasa–Qiangtang collision timing, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 122, 4790–4813, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JB014211, 2017.
Ma, X. X., Shu, L. S., and Meert, J. G.: Early Permian slab breakoff in the Chinese Tianshan belt inferred from the post-collisional granitoids, Gondwana Res., 27, 228–243, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.09.018, 2015.
Macaulay, E. A., Sobel, E. R., Mikolaichuk, A., Kohn, B., and Stuart, F. M.: Cenozoic deformation and exhumation history of the Central Kyrgyz Tien Shan, Tectonics, 33, 135–165, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013tc003376, 2014.
Marrucci, M., Zeilinger, G., Ribolini, A., and Schwanghart, W.: Origin of knickpoints in an alpine context subject to different perturbing factors, Stura valley, Maritime Alps (north-western Italy), Geoscience, 8, 443, https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences8120443, 2018.
Meng, Q.-R.: What drove late Mesozoic extension of the northern China–Mongolia tract?, Tectonophysics, 369, 155–174, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(03)00195-1, 2003.
Molnar, P. and Tapponnier, P.: Cenozoic tectonics of Asia: Effects of a continental collision, Science, 189, 419–426, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.189.4201.419, 1975.
Morin, J., Jolivet, M., Barrier, L., Laborde, A., Li, H. B., and Dauteuil, O.: Planation surfaces of the Tian Shan Range (Central Asia): Insight on several 100 million years of topographic evolution, J. Asian Earth Sci., 177, 52–65, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2019.03.011, 2019.
Nachtergaele, S., De Pelsmaeker, E., Glorie, S., Zhimulev, F., Jolivet, M., Danisik, M., Buslov, M. M., and De Grave, J.: Meso-Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Talas-Fergana region of the Kyrgyz Tien Shan revealed by low-temperature basement and detrital thermochronology, Geosci. Front., 9, 1495–1514, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2017.11.007, 2018.
Ni, X., Wang, B., Cluzel, D., Liu, J., and He, Z.: Late Paleozoic tectonic evolution of the north Tianshan belt: New structural and geochronological constraints from meta-sedimentary rocks and migmatites in the Harlik range (NW China), J. Asian Earth Sci., 210, 104711, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2021.104711, 2021.
Pearce, N. J. G., Perkins, W. T., Westgate, J. A., Gorton, M. P., Jackson, S. E., Neal, C. R., and Chenery, S. P.: A compilation of new and published major and trace element data for NIST SRM 610 and NIST SRM 612 glass reference materials, Geostandard Newslett., 21, 115–144, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-908X.1997.tb00538.x, 1997.
Phillips, J. D.: Erosion, isostatic response, and the missing peneplains, Geomorphology, 45, 225–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555x(01)00156-8, 2002.
Pullen, A., Banaszynski, M., Kapp, P., Thomson, S. N., and Cai, F.: A mid-Cretaceous change from fast to slow exhumation of the western Chinese Altai mountains: A climate driven exhumation signal?, J. Asian Earth Sci., 197, 104387, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2020.104387, 2020.
Qin, Y., Liu, C. Y., Yang, L. H., Peng, H., and Jiao, X. Q.: Detrital-zircon geochronology of Jurassic-Cretaceous strata in the Turpan-Hami Basin: Implication for the Late Mesozoic tectonic evolution of eastern Tien Shan, Minerals, 12, 926, https://doi.org/10.3390/min12080926, 2022.
Rohrmann, A., Kapp, P., Carrapa, B., Reiners, P. W., Guynn, J., Ding, L., and Heizler, M.: Thermochronologic evidence for plateau formation in central Tibet by 45 Ma, Geology, 40, 187–190, https://doi.org/10.1130/G32530.1, 2012.
Rolland, Y., Jourdon, A., Petit, C., Bellahsen, N., Loury, C., Sobel, E. R., and Glodny, J.: Thermochronology of the highest central Asian massifs (Khan Tengri-Pobedi, SE Kyrgyztan): Evidence for Late Miocene (ca. 8 Ma) reactivation of Permian faults and insights into building the Tian Shan, J. Asian Earth Sci., 200, 104466, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2020.104466, 2020.
Schwab, M., Ratschbacher, L., Siebel, W., McWilliams, M., Minaev, V., Lutkov, V., Chen, F. K., Stanek, K., Nelson, B., Frisch, W., and Wooden, J. L.: Assembly of the Pamirs: Age and origin of magmatic belts from the southern Tien Shan to the southern Pamirs and their relation to Tibet, Tectonics, 23, TC4002, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003tc001583, 2004.
Schwanghart, W. and Scherler, D.: Short Communication: TopoToolbox 2 – MATLAB-based software for topographic analysis and modeling in Earth surface sciences, Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 1–7, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-1-2014, 2014.
Schwanghart, W. and Scherler, D.: Bumps in river profiles: uncertainty assessment and smoothing using quantile regression techniques, Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 821–839, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-821-2017, 2017.
Shao, L., Stattegger, K., Li, W., and Haupt, B. J.: Depositional style and subsidence history of the Turpan Basin (NW China), Sed. Geol., 128, 155–169, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(99)00066-4, 1999.
Shao, L., Zhang, P., Hilton, J., Gayer, R., Wang, Y., Zhao, C., and Luo, Z.: Paleoenvironments and paleogeography of the Lower and lower Middle Jurassic coal measures in the Turpan-Hami oil-prone coal basin, northwestern China, Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol. B., 87, 335–355, https://doi.org/10.1306/09160200936, 2003.
Shen, C. B., Mei, L. F., Liu, L., Tang, J. G., and Zhou, F.: Evidence from apatite and zircon fission track analysis for Mesozoic–Cenozoic uplift thermal history of Bogeda Mountain of Xinjiang, Northwest China, Mar. Geol. Quat. Geol., 87–92 (in Chinese with English abstract), 2006.
Shen, T., Chen, Y., Wang, G., Ji, J., Wang, Y., Zhang, P., Sotiriou, P., Guo, R., and Xu, Z.: Detrital zircon geochronology analysis of the Late Mesozoic deposition in the Turpan-Hami basin: Implications for the uplift history of the Eastern Tian Shan, north-western China, Terra Nova, 32, 166–178, https://doi.org/10.1111/ter.12445, 2020.
Shen, T., Ding, Y., Wang, G., Zhang, D., and Zhao, Z.: Quaternary deformation along the Gobi–Tian Shan fault in the easternmost Tian Shan (Harlik mountain), central Asia, Remote Sens., 16, 3343, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16173343, 2024.
Smith, A. G. G., Fox, M., Schwanghart, W., and Carter, A.: Comparing methods for calculating channel steepness index, Earth-Sci. Rev., 227, 103970, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.103970, 2022.
Sobel, E. R., Oskin, M., Burbank, D., and Mikolaichuk, A.: Exhumation of basement-cored uplifts: Example of the Kyrgyz Range quantified with apatite fission track thermochronology, Tectonics, 25, 17, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005tc001809, 2006a.
Sobel, E. R., Chen, J., and Heermance, R. V.: Late Oligocene-Early Miocene initiation of shortening in the Southwestern Chinese Tian Shan: Implications for Neogene shortening rate variations, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 247, 70–81, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.03.048, 2006b.
Song, D. F., Glorie, S., Xiao, W. J., Collins, M. S., Gillespie, J., Jepson, G., and Li, Y. C.: Tectono-thermal evolution of the southwestern Alxa Tectonic Belt, NW China: Constrained by apatite U–Pb and fission track thermochronology, Tectonophysics, 722, 577–594, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2017.11.029, 2018.
Song, S. D., Li, J. A., Liu, X. Y., Wang, Y. D., Liang, W. T., and Yuan, S. H.: Mesozoic–Cenozoic exhumation history of the Bogda Range, Eastern Tianshan: Insights from apatite fission track thermochronology, Minerals, 13, 71, https://doi.org/10.3390/min13010071, 2023.
Sui, Q.-L., Wang, Q., Zhu, D.-C., Zhao, Z.-D., Chen, Y., Santosh, M., Hu, Z.-C., Yuan, H.-L., and Mo, X.-X.: Compositional diversity of ca. 110 Ma magmatism in the northern Lhasa Terrane, Tibet: Implications for the magmatic origin and crustal growth in a continent–continent collision zone, Lithos, 168–169, 144–159, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2013.01.012, 2013.
Sun, J. B., Chen, W., Qin, K. Z., Danisik, M., Evans, N. J., McInnes, B. I. A., Shen, Z., Zhao, S. F., Zhang, B., Yin, J. Y., and Tao, N.: Mesozoic exhumation of the Jueluotage area, Eastern Tianshan, NW China: constraints from (U–Th)
Sun, J. B., Sun, T. F., Chen, W., Yu, S., Yin, J. Y., Li, C., Zhang, Y., and Liu, X. Y.: Thermo-tectonic evolution history of Hongyuntan area, eastern Tianshan, Xinjiang: Constrained from Ar–Ar and (U–Th)
Suo, Y. H., Li, S. Z., Cao, X. Z., Dong, H., Li, X. Y., and Wang, X. Y.: Two-stage eastward diachronous model of India–Eurasia collision: Constraints from the intraplate tectonic records in Northeast Indian Ocean, Gondwana Res., 102, 372–384, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2020.01.006, 2022.
Tang, W., Zhang, Z., Li, J., and Chen, C.: Geochemical characteristics and tectonic significance of the Cretaceous volcanic rocks in the Eastern Terminal of the Altyn Tagh fault zones, Earth Sci. Front., 19, 51–62, 2012.
Tang, W. H., Zhang, Z. C., Li, J. F., Li, K., Luo, Z. W., and Chen, Y.: Mesozoic and Cenozoic uplift and exhumation of the Bogda Mountain, NW China: Evidence from apatite fission track analysis, Geosci. Front., 6, 617–625, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2014.04.006, 2015.
Tian, Z., Xiao, W., Zhang, Z., and Lin, X.: Fission-track constrains on superposed folding in the Beishan orogenic belt, southernmost Altaids, Geosci. Front., 7, 181–196, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2015.11.007, 2016.
van der Beek, P. A., Delvaux, D., Andriessen, P. A. M., and Levi, K. G.: Early Cretaceous denudation related to convergent tectonics in the Baikal region, SE Siberia, J. Geol. Soc., 153, 515–523, https://doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.153.4.0515, 1996.
van der Beek, P., Van Melle, J., Guillot, S., Pêcher, A., Reiners, P. W., Nicolescu, S., and Latif, M.: Eocene Tibetan plateau remnants preserved in the northwest Himalaya, Nat. Geosci., 2, 364–368, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo503, 2009.
van Hinsbergen, D. J. J., Lippert, P. C., Dupont-Nivet, G., McQuarrie, N., Doubrovine, P. V., Spakman, W., and Torsvik, T. H.: Greater India Basin hypothesis and a two-stage Cenozoic collision between India and Asia, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 109, 7659–7664, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1117262109, 2012.
Vermeesch, P.: RadialPlotter: A Java application for fission track, luminescence and other radial plots, Radiat. Meas., 44, 409–410, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radmeas.2009.05.003, 2009.
Vermeesch, P.: Statistics for LA-ICP-MS based fission track dating, Chem. Geol., 456, 19–27, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2017.03.002, 2017.
Wang, F., Luo, M., He, Z., Wang, Y., Zheng, B., Zhang, Z., Hu, X., and Zhu, W.: Mid-Cretaceous accelerated cooling of the Beishan Orogen, NW China: Evidence from apatite fission track thermochronology, Lithosphere, 2023, lithosphere_2023_239, https://doi.org/10.2113/2023/lithosphere_2023_239, 2024.
Wang, G., Cao, K., Zhang, K., Wang, A., Liu, C., Meng, Y., and Xu, Y.: Spatio-temporal framework of tectonic uplift stages of the Tibetan Plateau in Cenozoic, Sci. China Earth Sci., 54, 29–44, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-010-4110-0, 2011.
Wang, Q. C., Li, S. J., and Du, Z. L.: Differential uplift of the Chinese Tianshan since the Cretaceous: constraints from sedimentary petrography and apatite fission-track dating, Int. J. Earth Sci., 98, 1341–1363, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-009-0436-2, 2009.
Wang, T., Guo, L., Zhang, L., Yang, Q., Zhang, J., Tong, Y., and Ye, K.: Timing and evolution of Jurassic–Cretaceous granitoid magmatism in the Mongol–Okhotsk belt and adjacent areas, NE Asia: Implications for transition from contractional crustal thickening to extensional thinning and geodynamic settings, J. Asian Earth Sci., 97, 365–392, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2014.10.005, 2015.
Wang, T., Tong, Y., Xiao, W., Guo, L., Windley, B. F., Donskaya, T., Li, S., Tserendash, N., and Zhang, J.: Rollback, scissor-like closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean and formation of an orocline: magmatic migration based on a large archive of age data, Natl. Sci. Rev., 9, nwab210, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwab210, 2022.
Wang, X., Kellner, A. W. A., Jiang, S., Cheng, X., Wang, Q., Ma, Y., Paidoula, Y., Rodrigues, T., Chen, H., Sayão, J. M., Li, N., Zhang, J., Bantim, R. A. M., Meng, X., Zhang, X., Qiu, R., and Zhou, Z.: Egg accumulation with 3D embryos provides insight into the life history of a pterosaur, Science, 358, 1197–1201, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan2329, 2017.
Wang, Y., Wang, Y., Yin, J., Thomson, S. N., Xiao, W., He, Z., Chen, W., Cai, K., Wu, M., and Meng, Y.: Mesozoic exhumation of the northern West Junggar, NW China: Insights from low-temperature thermochronometers, Tectonophysics, 862, 229939, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2023.229939, 2023a.
Wang, Y. N., Cai, K. D., Sun, M., Xiao, W. J., De Grave, J., Wan, B., and Bao, Z. H.: Tracking the multi-stage exhumation history of the western Chinese Tianshan by apatite fission track (AFT) dating: Implication for the preservation of epithermal deposits in the ancient orogenic belt, Ore Geol. Rev., 100, 111–132, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2017.04.011, 2018.
Wang, Y. N., Zhang, J., Huang, X., and Wang, Z. J.: Cenozoic exhumation of the Tianshan as constrained by regional low-temperature thermochronology, Earth-Sci. Rev., 237, 24, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104325, 2023b.
Whipple, K. X. and Tucker, G. E.: Dynamics of the stream-power river incision model: Implications for height limits of mountain ranges, landscape response timescales, and research needs, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 17661–17674, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JB900120, 1999.
Whipple, K. X., DiBiase, R. A., Ouimet, W. B., and Forte, A. M.: Preservation or piracy: Diagnosing low-relief, high-elevation surface formation mechanisms, Geology, 45, 91–94, https://doi.org/10.1130/G38490.1, 2017.
Windley, B. F., Allen, M. B., Zhang, C., Zhao, Z. Y., and Wang, G. R.: Paleozoic accretion and Cenozoic redeformation of the Chinese Tien-Shan-Range, Central Asia, Geology, 18, 128–131, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<0128:Paacro>2.3.Co;2, 1990.
Windley, B. F., Alexeiev, D., Xiao, W. J., Kroner, A., and Badarch, G.: Tectonic models for accretion of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, J. Geol. Soc., 164, 31–47, https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492006-022, 2007.
Wobus, C., Whipple, K. X., Kirby, E., Snyder, N., Johnson, J., Spyropolou, K., Crosby, B., and Sheehan, D.: Tectonics from topography: Procedures, promise, and pitfalls, in: Tectonics, Climate, and Landscape Evolution, Geological Society of America, https://doi.org/10.1130/2006.2398(04), 2006.
Wu, H., Li, C., Hu, P., and Li, X.: Early Cretaceous (100–105 Ma) adakitic magmatism in the Dachagou area, northern Lhasa terrane, Tibet: implications for the Bangong–Nujiang Ocean subduction and slab break-off, Int. Geol. Rev., 57, 1172–1188, https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2014.886152, 2015.
Wu, M., Yin, J., He, Z., Xiao, W., Wang, Y., Chen, W., Wang, Y., Sun, J., Li, D., and Meng, Y.: Mesozoic thermo-tectonic evolution of the Western Altai Orogenic Belt (NW China): Insights from low-temperature thermochronology, Lithosphere, 2023, 8161000, https://doi.org/10.2113/2023/8161000, 2023.
Xiang, D. F., Zhang, Z. Y., Xiao, W. J., Zhu, W. B., Zheng, D. W., Li, G. W., Zheng, B. H., Song, D. F., Han, C. M., and Pang, J. Z.: Episodic Meso-Cenozoic denudation of Chinese Tianshan: evidence from detrital apatite fission track and zircon U–Pb data, southern Junggar Basin margin, NW China, J. Asian Earth Sci., 175, 199–212, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.07.042, 2019.
Xiao, W. J., Zhang, L. C., Qin, K. Z., Sun, S., and Li, J. L.: Paleozoic accretionary and collisional tectonics of the Eastern Tianshan (China): Implications for the continental growth of Central Asia, Am. J. Sci., 304, 370–395, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.304.4.370, 2004.
Xiao, W. J., Windley, B. F., Allen, M. B., and Han, C. M.: Paleozoic multiple accretionary and collisional tectonics of the Chinese Tianshan orogenic collage, Gondwana Res., 23, 1316–1341, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2012.01.012, 2013.
Yang, R., Willett, S. D., and Goren, L.: In situ low-relief landscape formation as a result of river network disruption, Nature, 520, 526–529, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14354, 2015a.
Yang, Y. T., Guo, Z. X., Song, C. C., Li, X. B., and He, S.: A short-lived but significant Mongol-Okhotsk collisional orogeny in latest Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous, Gondwana Res, 28, 1096–1116, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.09.010, 2015b.
Yin, A. and Harrison, T. M.: Geologic Evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen, Annu. Rev. Earth Pl. Sc., 28, 211–280, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.211, 2000.
Yin, J. Y., Chen, W., Hodges, K. V., Xiao, W. J., Cai, K. D., Yuan, C., Sun, M., Liu, L. P., and van Soest, M. C.: The thermal evolution of Chinese central Tianshan and its implications: Insights from multi-method chronometry, Tectonophysics, 722, 536–548, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2017.11.037, 2018.
Yuan, J., Yang, Z., Deng, C., Krijgsman, W., Hu, X., Li, S., Shen, Z., Qin, H., An, W., He, H., Ding, L., Guo, Z., and Zhu, R.: Rapid drift of the Tethyan Himalaya terrane before two-stage India-Asia collision, Natl. Sci. Rev., 8, nwaa173, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaa173, 2021.
Zaprowski, B. J., Pazzaglia, F. J., and Evenson, E. B.: Climatic influences on profile concavity and river incision, J. Geophys. Res., 110, 2004JF000138, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JF000138, 2005.
Zhang, B., Yang, J., Yang, L., Chen, H., Liu, J., Wang, F., and Wu, L.: Mesozoic–Cenozoic exhumation processes of the Harlik Mountain (East Tianshan), NW China: Evidence from apatite (U–Th)
Zhang, D., Wang, G., Pullen, A., Abell, J. T., Cheng, F., Shen, T., Ji, J., and Zhang, M.: A westerly dominated Early Cretaceous aeolian system in the Hami Basin, NW China, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 137, 137–155, https://doi.org/10.1130/B37436.1, 2024.
Zhang, K.-J.: Genesis of the Late Mesozoic Great Xing'an Range Large Igneous Province in eastern central Asia: A Mongol–Okhotsk slab window model, Int. Geol. Rev., 56, 1557–1583, https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2014.946541, 2014.
Zhang, K.-J., Yan, L.-L., and Ji, C.: Switch of NE Asia from extension to contraction at the mid-Cretaceous: A tale of the Okhotsk oceanic plateau from initiation by the Perm Anomaly to extrusion in the Mongol–Okhotsk ocean?, Earth-Sci. Rev., 198, 102941, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102941, 2019.
Zhang, W., Chen, W., Sun, J. B., Shen, Z., and Zhang, Y.: Thermal history and exhumation processes in the Chinese South Tianshan: constraints from Ar-40
Zhang, Z. Y., Zhu, W. B., Shu, L. S., Wan, J. L., Yang, W., Su, J. B., and Zheng, B. H.: Apatite fission track thermochronology of the Precambrian Aksu blueschist, NW China: Implications for thermo-tectonic evolution of the north Tarim basement, Gondwana Res., 16, 182–188, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2009.04.006, 2009.
Zhang, Z. Y., Zhu, W. B., Shu, L. S., Wan, J. L., Yang, W., Zheng, B. H., and Su, J. B.: Multi-stage exhumation of the NE Tarim Precambrian bedrock, NW China: constraints from apatite fission track thermochronology in the Kuluketage area, Terra Nova, 23, 324–332, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3121.2011.01017.x, 2011.
Zhang, Z. Y., Zhu, W. B., Zheng, D. W., Zheng, B. H., and Yang, W.: Apatite fission track thermochronology in the Kuluketage and Aksu areas, NW China: Implication for tectonic evolution of the northern Tarim, Geosci. Front., 7, 171–180, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2015.08.007, 2016.
Zheng, D., Chang, S.-C., Ramezani, J., Xu, X., Xu, H., Wang, H., Pei, R., Fang, Y., Wang, J., Wang, B., and Zhang, H.: Calibrating the Early Cretaceous Urho Pterosaur fauna in Junggar Basin and implications for the evolution of the Jehol Biota, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 136, 765–773, https://doi.org/10.1130/B36795.1, 2023.
Zhimulev, F. I., Vetrov, E. V., Novikov, I. S., Van Ranst, G., Nachtergaele, S., Dokashenko, S. A., and De Grave, J.: Mesozoic intracontinental orogeny in the tectonic history of the Kolyvan'–Tomsk Folded Zone (Southern Siberia): a synthesis of geological data and results of apatite fission track analysis, Russ. Geol. Geophys.+, 62, 1006–1020, https://doi.org/10.2113/rgg20204172, 2021.
Zhu, W., Shu, L., Wan, J., Sun, Y., Wang, F., and Zhao, Z.: Fission-track evidence for the exhumation history of Bogda-Harlik Mountains, Xinjiang since the Cretaceous, Acta Geol. Sin., 16–22 (in Chinese with English abstract), 2006.
Zhu, W. B., Wan, J. L., Shu, L. S., Sun, Y., and Wang, F.: Mesozoic–Cenozoic thermal history of Turpan–Hami basin: evidence from apatite fission track, Progr. Natural., 14, 1194–1198 (in Chinese with English abstract), https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1002-008X.2004.10.017, 2004.
Zhu, W. B., Zhang, Z., Shu, L., Wan, J., Lu, H., Wang, S., Yang, W., and Su, J.: Uplift and exhumation history of the Precambrian basement, Northern Tarim: Evidence from apatite fission track data, Acta Petrol. Sin., 23, 1671–1682 (in Chinese with English abstract), https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-0569.2007.07.013, 2007.
Short summary
This study examines the evolution of the Harlik Mountains in the eastern Tian Shan. Low-relief surfaces were formed by the Early Cretaceous erosion and subsequent tectonic stability. Later fault activity segmented these surfaces, with uplift and tilting in the Cenozoic driven by tectonic reactivation. These findings provide insights into how landscapes evolve in response to geological and environmental changes over millions of years.
This study examines the evolution of the Harlik Mountains in the eastern Tian Shan. Low-relief...
