Articles | Volume 14, issue 9
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1005-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1005-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
12 Sep 2023
Research article |
| 12 Sep 2023
| 12 Sep 2023
Natural fracture patterns at Swift Reservoir anticline, NW Montana: the influence of structural position and lithology from multiple observation scales
School of Geosciences, University of Aberdeen, King's College,
Aberdeen, AB24 3UE, UK
present address: Space Science Division, Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Road, San Antonio, Texas 78238-5166, USA
Hannah Watkins
School of Geosciences, University of Aberdeen, King's College,
Aberdeen, AB24 3UE, UK
Clare E. Bond
School of Geosciences, University of Aberdeen, King's College,
Aberdeen, AB24 3UE, UK
Marian J. Warren
Jenner GeoConsulting Inc., 107 Lake Tahoe Place SE, Calgary, Alberta T2J 4B7, Canada
Mark A. Cooper
School of Geosciences, University of Aberdeen, King's College,
Aberdeen, AB24 3UE, UK
Sherwood GeoConsulting Inc., 140 Lake Mead Crescent SE, Calgary, Alberta T2J 4A1, Canada
Related authors
Clare E. Bond and Adam J. Cawood
Geosci. Commun., 4, 233–244, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-233-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-233-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Virtual outcrop models are increasingly used in geoscience teaching, but their efficacy as a training tool for 3D thinking has been little tested. We find that using a virtual outcrop increases the participants' ability to choose the correct geological block model. That virtual outcrops are viewed positively, but only in a blended learning environment and not as a replacement for fieldwork, and virtual outcrop use could improve equality, diversity and inclusivity in geoscience.
Clare E. Bond, Jessica H. Pugsley, Lauren Kedar, Sarah R. Ledingham, Marianna Z. Skupinska, Tomasz K. Gluzinski, and Megan L. Boath
Geosci. Commun., 5, 307–323, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-5-307-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-5-307-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Virtual field trips are used to engage students who are unable to go into the field with geological field work. Here, we investigate the perceptions of staff and students before and after a virtual field trip, including the investigation of the success of mitigation measures designed to decrease barriers to engagement and inclusion. We conclude that negative and positive perceptions exist and that effective mitigation measures can be used to improve the student experience.
Lauren Kedar, Clare E. Bond, and David K. Muirhead
Solid Earth, 13, 1495–1511, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1495-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1495-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Raman spectroscopy of carbon-bearing rocks is often used to calculate peak temperatures and therefore burial history. However, strain is known to affect Raman spectral parameters. We investigate a series of deformed rocks that have been subjected to varying degrees of strain and find that there is a consistent change in some parameters in the most strained rocks, while other parameters are not affected by strain. We apply temperature calculations and find that strain affects them differently.
Alexander Schaaf, Miguel de la Varga, Florian Wellmann, and Clare E. Bond
Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 3899–3913, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-3899-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-3899-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Uncertainty is an inherent property of any model of the subsurface. We show how geological topology information – how different regions of rocks in the subsurface are connected – can be used to train uncertain geological models to reduce uncertainty. More widely, the method demonstrates the use of probabilistic machine learning (Bayesian inference) to train structural geological models on auxiliary geological knowledge that can be encoded in graph structures.
Jennifer J. Roberts, Clare E. Bond, and Zoe K. Shipton
Geosci. Commun., 4, 303–327, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-303-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-303-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The potential for hydraulic fracturing (fracking) to induce seismicity is a topic of widespread interest. We find that terms used to describe induced seismicity are poorly defined and ambiguous and do not translate into everyday language. Such bad language has led to challenges in understanding, perceiving, and communicating risks around seismicity and fracking. Our findings and recommendations are relevant to other geoenergy topics that are potentially associated with induced seismicity.
Clare E. Bond and Adam J. Cawood
Geosci. Commun., 4, 233–244, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-233-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-233-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Virtual outcrop models are increasingly used in geoscience teaching, but their efficacy as a training tool for 3D thinking has been little tested. We find that using a virtual outcrop increases the participants' ability to choose the correct geological block model. That virtual outcrops are viewed positively, but only in a blended learning environment and not as a replacement for fieldwork, and virtual outcrop use could improve equality, diversity and inclusivity in geoscience.
Lucía Pérez-Díaz, Juan Alcalde, and Clare E. Bond
Solid Earth, 11, 889–897, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-889-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-889-2020, 2020
Juan Alcalde, Clare E. Bond, Gareth Johnson, Armelle Kloppenburg, Oriol Ferrer, Rebecca Bell, and Puy Ayarza
Solid Earth, 10, 1651–1662, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1651-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1651-2019, 2019
Cristina G. Wilson, Clare E. Bond, and Thomas F. Shipley
Solid Earth, 10, 1469–1488, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1469-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1469-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper, we outline the key insights from decision-making research about how, when faced with uncertainty, humans constrain decisions through the use of heuristics (rules of thumb), making them vulnerable to systematic and suboptimal decision biases. We also review existing strategies to debias decision-making that have applicability in the geosciences, giving special attention to strategies that make use of information technology and artificial intelligence.
Alexander Schaaf and Clare E. Bond
Solid Earth, 10, 1049–1061, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1049-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1049-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Seismic reflection data allow us to infer subsurface structures such as horizon and fault surfaces. The interpretation of this indirect data source is inherently uncertainty, and our work takes a first look at the scope of uncertainties involved in the interpretation of 3-D seismic data. We show how uncertainties of fault interpretations can be related to data quality and discuss the implications for the 3-D modeling of subsurface structures derived from 3-D seismic data.
Johannes M. Miocic, Gareth Johnson, and Clare E. Bond
Solid Earth, 10, 951–967, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-951-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-951-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
When carbon dioxide is introduced into the subsurface it will migrate upwards and can encounter faults, which, depending on their hydrogeological properties and composition, can form barriers or pathways for the migrating fluid. We analyse uncertainties associated with these properties in order to better understand the implications for the retention of CO2 in the subsurface. We show that faults that form seals for other fluids may not be seals for CO2, which has implications for storage sites.
Related subject area
Subject area: Tectonic plate interactions, magma genesis, and lithosphere deformation at all scales | Editorial team: Structural geology and tectonics, paleoseismology, rock physics, experimental deformation | Discipline: Structural geology
Reconciling post-orogenic faulting, paleostress evolution, and structural inheritance in the seismogenic northern Apennines (Italy): insights from the Monti Martani Fault System
Understanding the stress field at the lateral termination of a thrust fold using generic geomechanical models and clustering methods
Localized shear and distributed strain accumulation as competing shear accommodation mechanisms in crustal shear zones: constraining their dictating factors
Influence of water on crystallographic preferred orientation patterns in a naturally deformed quartzite
Geomorphic expressions of active rifting reflect the role of structural inheritance: a new model for the evolution of the Shanxi Rift, northern China
Driven magmatism and crustal thinning of coastal southern China in response to subduction
Selection and characterization of the target fault for fluid-induced activation and earthquake rupture experiments
Naturally fractured reservoir characterisation in heterogeneous sandstones: insight for uranium in situ recovery (Imouraren, Niger)
Earthquake swarms frozen in an exhumed hydrothermal system (Bolfin Fault Zone, Chile)
Multiscalar 3D temporal structural characterisation of Smøla island, mid-Norwegian passive margin: an analogue for unravelling the tectonic history of offshore basement highs
Impact of faults on the remote stress state
Subduction plate interface shear stress associated with rapid subduction at deep slow earthquake depths: example from the Sanbagawa belt, southwestern Japan
Multiple phase rifting and subsequent inversion in the West Netherlands Basin: implications for geothermal reservoir characterization
Analogue modelling of basin inversion: implications for the Araripe Basin (Brazil)
Rapid hydration and weakening of anhydrite under stress: implications for natural hydration in the Earth's crust and mantle
Analogue experiments on releasing and restraining bends and their application to the study of the Barents Shear Margin
Structural framework and timing of the Pahtohavare Cu ± Au deposits, Kiruna mining district, Sweden
Does the syn- versus post-rift thickness ratio have an impact on the inversion-related structural style?
Inversion of accommodation zones in salt-bearing extensional systems: insights from analog modeling
Structural control of inherited salt structures during inversion of a domino basement-fault system from an analogue modelling approach
Kinematics and time-resolved evolution of the main thrust-sense shear zone in the Eo-Alpine orogenic wedge (the Vinschgau Shear Zone, eastern Alps)
Role of inheritance during tectonic inversion of a rift system in basement-involved to salt-decoupled transition: analogue modelling and application to the Pyrenean–Biscay system
Water release and homogenization by dynamic recrystallization of quartz
Hydrothermal activity of the Lake Abhe geothermal field (Djibouti): Structural controls and paths for further exploration
Time-dependent frictional properties of granular materials used in analogue modelling: implications for mimicking fault healing during reactivation and inversion
Large grain-size-dependent rheology contrasts of halite at low differential stress: evidence from microstructural study of naturally deformed gneissic Zechstein 2 rock salt (Kristallbrockensalz) from the northern Netherlands
Analogue modelling of the inversion of multiple extensional basins in foreland fold-and-thrust belts
A contribution to the quantification of crustal shortening and kinematics of deformation across the Western Andes ( ∼ 20–22° S)
Rift thermal inheritance in the SW Alps (France): insights from RSCM thermometry and 1D thermal numerical modelling
The Luangwa Rift Active Fault Database and fault reactivation along the southwestern branch of the East African Rift
Clustering has a meaning: optimization of angular similarity to detect 3D geometric anomalies in geological terrains
Shear zone evolution and the path of earthquake rupture
Mechanical compaction mechanisms in the input sediments of the Sumatra subduction complex – insights from microstructural analysis of cores from IODP Expedition 362
Detecting micro fractures: a comprehensive comparison of conventional and machine-learning-based segmentation methods
Multiscale lineament analysis and permeability heterogeneity of fractured crystalline basement blocks
Structural characterization and K–Ar illite dating of reactivated, complex and heterogeneous fault zones: lessons from the Zuccale Fault, Northern Apennines
How do differences in interpreting seismic images affect estimates of geological slip rates?
Progressive veining during peridotite carbonation: insights from listvenites in Hole BT1B, Samail ophiolite (Oman)
Tectonic evolution of the Indio Hills segment of the San Andreas fault in southern California, southwestern USA
Structural diagenesis in ultra-deep tight sandstones in the Kuqa Depression, Tarim Basin, China
Variscan structures and their control on latest to post-Variscan basin architecture: insights from the westernmost Bohemian Massif and southeastern Germany
Multi-disciplinary characterizations of the BedrettoLab – a new underground geoscience research facility
Biotite supports long-range diffusive transport in dissolution–precipitation creep in halite through small porosity fluctuations
De-risking the energy transition by quantifying the uncertainties in fault stability
Virtual field trip to the Esla Nappe (Cantabrian Zone, NW Spain): delivering traditional geological mapping skills remotely using real data
Marine forearc structure of eastern Java and its role in the 1994 Java tsunami earthquake
Roughness of fracture surfaces in numerical models and laboratory experiments
Impact of basement thrust faults on low-angle normal faults and rift basin evolution: a case study in the Enping sag, Pearl River Basin
Evidence for and significance of the Late Cretaceous Asteroussia event in the Gondwanan Ios basement terranes
Investigating spatial heterogeneity within fracture networks using hierarchical clustering and graph distance metrics
Riccardo Asti, Selina Bonini, Giulio Viola, and Gianluca Vignaroli
Solid Earth, 15, 1525–1551, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1525-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1525-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study addresses the tectonic evolution of the seismogenic Monti Martani Fault System (northern Apennines, Italy). By applying a field-based structural geology approach, we reconstruct the evolution of the stress field and we challenge the current interpretation of the fault system in terms of both geometry and state of activity. We stress that the peculiar behavior of this system during post-orogenic extension is still significantly influenced by the pre-orogenic structural template.
Anthony Adwan, Bertrand Maillot, Pauline Souloumiac, Christophe Barnes, Christophe Nussbaum, Meinert Rahn, and Thomas Van Stiphout
Solid Earth, 15, 1445–1463, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1445-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1445-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We use computer simulations to study how stress is distributed in large-scale geological models, focusing on how fault lines behave under pressure. By running many 2D and 3D simulations with varying conditions, we discover patterns in how faults form and interact. Our findings reveal that even small changes in conditions can lead to different stress outcomes. This research helps us better understand earthquake mechanics and could improve predictions of fault behavior in real-world scenarios.
Pramit Chatterjee, Arnab Roy, and Nibir Mandal
Solid Earth, 15, 1281–1301, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1281-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1281-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding strain accumulation processes in shear zones is essential for explaining failure mechanisms at great crustal depths. This study explores the rheological and kinematic factors determining the varying modes of shear accommodation in natural shear zones. Numerical simulations suggest that an interplay of parameters – initial viscosity, bulk shear rate, and internal cohesion – governs the dominance of one accommodation mechanism over another.
Jeffrey M. Rahl, Brendan Moehringer, Kenneth S. Befus, and John S. Singleton
Solid Earth, 15, 1233–1240, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1233-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1233-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
At the high temperatures present in the deeper crust, minerals such as quartz can flow much like silly putty. The detailed mechanisms of how atoms are reorganized depends upon several factors, such as the temperature and the rate of which the mineral changes shape. We present observations from a naturally deformed rock showing that the amount of water present also influences the type of deformation in quartz, with implications for geological interpretations.
Malte Froemchen, Ken J. W. McCaffrey, Mark B. Allen, Jeroen van Hunen, Thomas B. Phillips, and Yueren Xu
Solid Earth, 15, 1203–1231, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1203-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1203-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The Shanxi Rift is a young, active rift in northern China that formed atop a Proterozoic orogen. The impact of these structures on active rift faults is poorly understood. Here, we quantify the landscape response to active faulting and compare it with published maps of inherited structures. We find that inherited structures played an important role in the segmentation of the Shanxi Rift and in the development of rift interaction zones, which are the most active regions in the Shanxi Rift.
Jinbao Su, Wenbin Zhu, and Guangwei Li
Solid Earth, 15, 1133–1141, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1133-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1133-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The late Mesozoic igneous rocks in the South China Block exhibit flare-ups and lulls, which form in compressional or extensional backgrounds. The ascending of magma forms a mush-like head and decreases crustal thickness. The presence of faults and pre-existing magmas will accelerate emplacement of underplating magma. The magmatism at different times may be formed under similar subduction conditions, and the boundary compression forces will delay magma ascent.
Peter Achtziger-Zupančič, Alberto Ceccato, Alba Simona Zappone, Giacomo Pozzi, Alexis Shakas, Florian Amann, Whitney Maria Behr, Daniel Escallon Botero, Domenico Giardini, Marian Hertrich, Mohammadreza Jalali, Xiaodong Ma, Men-Andrin Meier, Julian Osten, Stefan Wiemer, and Massimo Cocco
Solid Earth, 15, 1087–1112, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1087-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1087-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We detail the selection and characterization of a fault zone for earthquake experiments in the Fault Activation and Earthquake Ruptures (FEAR) project at the Bedretto Lab. FEAR, which studies earthquake processes, overcame data collection challenges near faults. The fault zone in Rotondo granite was selected based on geometry, monitorability, and hydro-mechanical properties. Remote sensing, borehole logging, and geological mapping were used to create a 3D model for precise monitoring.
Maxime Jamet, Gregory Ballas, Roger Soliva, Olivier Gerbeaud, Thierry Lefebvre, Christine Leredde, and Didier Loggia
Solid Earth, 15, 895–920, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-895-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-895-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study characterizes the Tchirezrine II sandstone reservoir in northern Niger. Crucial for potential uranium in situ recovery (ISR), our multifaceted approach reveals (i) a network of homogeneously distributed orthogonal structures, (ii) the impact of clustered E–W fault structures on anisotropic fluid flow, and (iii) local changes in the matrix behaviour of the reservoir as a function of the density and nature of the deformation structure.
Simone Masoch, Giorgio Pennacchioni, Michele Fondriest, Rodrigo Gomila, Piero Poli, José Cembrano, and Giulio Di Toro
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.171995191.13613873/v1, https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.171995191.13613873/v1, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate an exhumed hydrothermal system in the Atacama Desert (Chile) to understand how earthquake swarms form. Wall-rocks near fault-veins experienced high-stress pulses, and fault-veins underwent cyclic crack opening and shearing. These findings suggest ancient earthquake swarm activity, from dynamic crack propagation to repeated crack opening and shearing. This system represents a unique geological record of earthquake swarms, providing insight into their initiation and evolution.
Matthew S. Hodge, Guri Venvik, Jochen Knies, Roelant van der Lelij, Jasmin Schönenberger, Øystein Nordgulen, Marco Brönner, Aziz Nasuti, and Giulio Viola
Solid Earth, 15, 589–615, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-589-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-589-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Smøla island, in the mid-Norwegian margin, has complex fracture and fault patterns resulting from tectonic activity. This study uses a multiple-method approach to unravel Smøla's tectonic history. We found five different phases of deformation related to various fracture geometries and minerals dating back hundreds of millions of years. 3D models of these features visualise these structures in space. This approach may help us to understand offshore oil and gas reservoirs hosted in the basement.
Karsten Reiter, Oliver Heidbach, and Moritz O. Ziegler
Solid Earth, 15, 305–327, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-305-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-305-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
It is generally assumed that faults have an influence on the stress state of the Earth’s crust. It is questionable whether this influence is still present far away from a fault. Simple numerical models were used to investigate the extent of the influence of faults on the stress state. Several models with different fault representations were investigated. The stress fluctuations further away from the fault (> 1 km) are very small.
Yukinojo Koyama, Simon R. Wallis, and Takayoshi Nagaya
Solid Earth, 15, 143–166, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-143-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-143-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Stress along a subduction plate boundary is important for understanding subduction phenomena such as earthquakes. We estimated paleo-stress using quartz recrystallized grain size combined with deformation temperature and P–T paths of exhumed rocks. The obtained results show differential stresses of 30.8–82.7 MPa consistent over depths of 17–27 km in the paleo-subduction boundary. The obtained stress may represent the initial conditions under which slow earthquakes nucleated in the same domain.
Annelotte Weert, Kei Ogata, Francesco Vinci, Coen Leo, Giovanni Bertotti, Jerome Amory, and Stefano Tavani
Solid Earth, 15, 121–141, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-121-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-121-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
On the road to a sustainable planet, geothermal energy is considered one of the main substitutes when it comes to heating. The geological history of an area can have a major influence on the application of these geothermal systems, as demonstrated in the West Netherlands Basin. Here, multiple episodes of rifting and subsequent basin inversion have controlled the distribution of the reservoir rocks, thus influencing the locations where geothermal energy can be exploited.
Pâmela C. Richetti, Frank Zwaan, Guido Schreurs, Renata S. Schmitt, and Timothy C. Schmid
Solid Earth, 14, 1245–1266, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1245-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1245-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Araripe Basin in NE Brazil was originally formed during Cretaceous times, as South America and Africa broke up. The basin is an important analogue to offshore South Atlantic break-up basins; its sediments were uplifted and are now found at 1000 m height, allowing for studies thereof, but the cause of the uplift remains debated. Here we ran a series of tectonic laboratory experiments that show how a specific plate tectonic configuration can explain the evolution of the Araripe Basin.
Johanna Heeb, David Healy, Nicholas E. Timms, and Enrique Gomez-Rivas
Solid Earth, 14, 985–1003, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-985-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-985-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Hydration of rocks is a key process in the Earth’s crust and mantle that is accompanied by changes in physical traits and mechanical behaviour of rocks. This study assesses the influence of stress on hydration reaction kinetics and mechanics in experiments on anhydrite. We show that hydration occurs readily under stress and results in localized hydration along fractures and mechanic weakening. New gypsum growth is selective and depends on the stress field and host anhydrite crystal orientation.
Roy Helge Gabrielsen, Panagiotis Athanasios Giannenas, Dimitrios Sokoutis, Ernst Willingshofer, Muhammad Hassaan, and Jan Inge Faleide
Solid Earth, 14, 961–983, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-961-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-961-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Barents Shear Margin defines the border between the relatively shallow Barents Sea that is situated on a continental plate and the deep ocean. This margin's evolution history was probably influenced by plate tectonic reorganizations. From scaled experiments, we deduced several types of structures (faults, folds, and sedimentary basins) that help us to improve the understanding of the history of the opening of the North Atlantic.
Leslie Logan, Ervin Veress, Joel B. H. Andersson, Olof Martinsson, and Tobias E. Bauer
Solid Earth, 14, 763–784, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-763-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-763-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Pahtohavare Cu ± Au deposits in the Kiruna mining district have a dubious timing of formation and have not been contextualized within an up-to-date tectonic framework. Structural mapping was carried out to reveal that the deposits are hosted in brittle structures that cut a noncylindrical, SE-plunging anticline constrained to have formed during the late-Svecokarelian orogeny. These results show that Cu ± Au mineralization formed more than ca. 80 Myr after iron oxide–apatite mineralization.
Alexandra Tamas, Dan M. Tamas, Gabor Tari, Csaba Krezsek, Alexandru Lapadat, and Zsolt Schleder
Solid Earth, 14, 741–761, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-741-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-741-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Tectonic processes are complex and often difficult to understand due to the limitations of surface or subsurface data. One such process is inversion tectonics, which means that an area initially developed in an extension (such as the opening of an ocean) is reversed to compression (the process leading to mountain building). In this research, we use a laboratory method (analogue modelling), and with the help of a sandbox, we try to better understand structures (folds/faults) related to inversion.
Elizabeth Parker Wilson, Pablo Granado, Pablo Santolaria, Oriol Ferrer, and Josep Anton Muñoz
Solid Earth, 14, 709–739, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-709-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-709-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This work focuses on the control of accommodation zones on extensional and subsequent inversion in salt-detached domains using sandbox analogue models. During extension, the transfer zone acts as a pathway for the movement of salt, changing the expected geometries. When inverted, the salt layer and syn-inversion sedimentation control the deformation style in the salt-detached cover system. Three natural cases are compared to the model results and show similar inversion geometries.
Oriol Ferrer, Eloi Carola, and Ken McClay
Solid Earth, 14, 571–589, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-571-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-571-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Using an experimental approach based on scaled sandbox models, this work aims to understand how salt above different rotational fault blocks influences the cover geometry and evolution, first during extension and then during inversion. The results show that inherited salt structures constrain contractional deformation. We show for the first time how welds and fault welds are reopened during contractional deformation, having direct implications for the subsurface exploration of natural resources.
Chiara Montemagni, Stefano Zanchetta, Martina Rocca, Igor M. Villa, Corrado Morelli, Volkmar Mair, and Andrea Zanchi
Solid Earth, 14, 551–570, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-551-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-551-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Vinschgau Shear Zone (VSZ) is one of the largest and most significant shear zones developed within the Late Cretaceous thrust stack in the Austroalpine domain of the eastern Alps. 40Ar / 39Ar geochronology constrains the activity of the VSZ between 97 and 80 Ma. The decreasing vorticity towards the core of the shear zone, coupled with the younging of mylonites, points to a shear thinning behavior. The deepest units of the Eo-Alpine orogenic wedge were exhumed along the VSZ.
Jordi Miró, Oriol Ferrer, Josep Anton Muñoz, and Gianreto Manastchal
Solid Earth, 14, 425–445, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-425-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-425-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Using the Asturian–Basque–Cantabrian system and analogue (sandbox) models, this work focuses on the linkage between basement-controlled and salt-decoupled domains and how deformation is accommodated between the two during extension and subsequent inversion. Analogue models show significant structural variability in the transitional domain, with oblique structures that can be strongly modified by syn-contractional sedimentation. Experimental results are consistent with the case study.
Junichi Fukuda, Takamoto Okudaira, and Yukiko Ohtomo
Solid Earth, 14, 409–424, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-409-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-409-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We measured water distributions in deformed quartz by infrared spectroscopy mapping and used the results to discuss changes in water distribution resulting from textural development. Because of the grain size reduction process (dynamic recrystallization), water contents decrease from 40–1750 wt ppm in host grains of ~2 mm to 100–510 wt ppm in recrystallized regions composed of fine grains of ~10 µm. Our results indicate that water is released and homogenized by dynamic recrystallization.
Bastien Walter, Yves Géraud, Alexiane Favier, Nadjib Chibati, and Marc Diraison
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-397, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-397, 2023
Preprint archived
Short summary
Short summary
Lake Abhe in southwestern Djibouti is known for its exposures of massive hydrothermal chimneys and hot springs on the lake’s eastern shore. This study highlights the control of the main structural faults of the area on the development of these hydrothermal features. This work contributes to better understand hydrothermal fluid pathways in this area and may help further exploration for the geothermal development of this remarkable site.
Michael Rudolf, Matthias Rosenau, and Onno Oncken
Solid Earth, 14, 311–331, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-311-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-311-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Analogue models of tectonic processes rely on the reproduction of their geometry, kinematics and dynamics. An important property is fault behaviour, which is linked to the frictional characteristics of the fault gouge. This is represented by granular materials, such as quartz sand. In our study we investigate the time-dependent frictional properties of various analogue materials and highlight their impact on the suitability of these materials for analogue models focusing on fault reactivation.
Jessica Barabasch, Joyce Schmatz, Jop Klaver, Alexander Schwedt, and Janos L. Urai
Solid Earth, 14, 271–291, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-271-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-271-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We analysed Zechstein salt with microscopes and observed specific microstructures that indicate much faster deformation in rock salt with fine halite grains when compared to salt with larger grains. This is important because people build large cavities in the subsurface salt for energy storage or want to deposit radioactive waste inside it. When engineers and scientists use grain-size data and equations that include this mechanism, it will help to make better predictions in geological models.
Nicolás Molnar and Susanne Buiter
Solid Earth, 14, 213–235, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-213-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-213-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Progression of orogenic wedges over pre-existing extensional structures is common in nature, but deciphering the spatio-temporal evolution of deformation from the geological record remains challenging. Our laboratory experiments provide insights on how horizontal stresses are transferred across a heterogeneous crust, constrain which pre-shortening conditions can either favour or hinder the reactivatation of extensional structures, and explain what implications they have on critical taper theory.
Tania Habel, Martine Simoes, Robin Lacassin, Daniel Carrizo, and German Aguilar
Solid Earth, 14, 17–42, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-17-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-17-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Central Andes are one of the most emblematic reliefs on Earth, but their western flank remains understudied. Here we explore two rare key sites in the hostile conditions of the Atacama desert to build cross-sections, quantify crustal shortening, and discuss the timing of this deformation at ∼20–22°S. We propose that the structures of the Western Andes accommodated significant crustal shortening here, but only during the earliest stages of mountain building.
Naïm Célini, Frédéric Mouthereau, Abdeltif Lahfid, Claude Gout, and Jean-Paul Callot
Solid Earth, 14, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the peak temperature of sedimentary rocks of the SW Alps (France), using Raman spectroscopy on carbonaceous material. This method provides an estimate of the peak temperature achieved by organic-rich rocks. To determine the timing and the tectonic context of the origin of these temperatures we use 1D thermal modelling. We find that the high temperatures up to 300 °C were achieved during precollisional extensional events, not during tectonic burial in the Western Alps.
Luke N. J. Wedmore, Tess Turner, Juliet Biggs, Jack N. Williams, Henry M. Sichingabula, Christine Kabumbu, and Kawawa Banda
Solid Earth, 13, 1731–1753, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1731-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1731-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Mapping and compiling the attributes of faults capable of hosting earthquakes are important for the next generation of seismic hazard assessment. We document 18 active faults in the Luangwa Rift, Zambia, in an active fault database. These faults are between 9 and 207 km long offset Quaternary sediments, have scarps up to ~30 m high, and are capable of hosting earthquakes from Mw 5.8 to 8.1. We associate the Molaza Fault with surface ruptures from two unattributed M 6+ 20th century earthquakes.
Michał P. Michalak, Lesław Teper, Florian Wellmann, Jerzy Żaba, Krzysztof Gaidzik, Marcin Kostur, Yuriy P. Maystrenko, and Paulina Leonowicz
Solid Earth, 13, 1697–1720, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1697-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1697-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
When characterizing geological/geophysical surfaces, various geometric attributes are calculated, such as dip angle (1D) or dip direction (2D). However, the boundaries between specific values may be subjective and without optimization significance, resulting from using default color palletes. This study proposes minimizing cosine distance among within-cluster observations to detect 3D anomalies. Our results suggest that the method holds promise for identification of megacylinders or megacones.
Erik M. Young, Christie D. Rowe, and James D. Kirkpatrick
Solid Earth, 13, 1607–1629, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1607-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1607-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Studying how earthquakes spread deep within the faults they originate from is crucial to improving our understanding of the earthquake process. We mapped preserved ancient earthquake surfaces that are now exposed in South Africa and studied their relationship with the shape and type of rocks surrounding them. We determined that these surfaces are not random and are instead associated with specific kinds of rocks and that their shape is linked to the evolution of the faults in which they occur.
Sivaji Lahiri, Kitty L. Milliken, Peter Vrolijk, Guillaume Desbois, and Janos L. Urai
Solid Earth, 13, 1513–1539, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1513-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1513-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding the mechanism of mechanical compaction is important. Previous studies on mechanical compaction were mostly done by performing experiments. Studies on natural rocks are rare due to compositional heterogeneity of the sedimentary succession with depth. Due to remarkable similarity in composition and grain size, the Sumatra subduction complex provides a unique opportunity to study the micromechanism of mechanical compaction on natural samples.
Dongwon Lee, Nikolaos Karadimitriou, Matthias Ruf, and Holger Steeb
Solid Earth, 13, 1475–1494, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1475-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1475-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This research article focuses on filtering and segmentation methods employed in high-resolution µXRCT studies for crystalline rocks, bearing fractures, or fracture networks, of very small aperture. Specifically, we focus on the identification of artificially induced (via quenching) fractures in Carrara marble samples. Results from the same dataset from all five different methods adopted were produced and compared with each other in terms of their output quality and time efficiency.
Alberto Ceccato, Giulia Tartaglia, Marco Antonellini, and Giulio Viola
Solid Earth, 13, 1431–1453, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1431-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1431-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Earth's surface is commonly characterized by the occurrence of fractures, which can be mapped, and their can be geometry quantified on digital representations of the surface at different scales of observation. Here we present a series of analytical and statistical tools, which can aid the quantification of fracture spatial distribution at different scales. In doing so, we can improve our understanding of how fracture geometry and geology affect fluid flow within the fractured Earth crust.
Giulio Viola, Giovanni Musumeci, Francesco Mazzarini, Lorenzo Tavazzani, Manuel Curzi, Espen Torgersen, Roelant van der Lelij, and Luca Aldega
Solid Earth, 13, 1327–1351, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1327-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1327-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A structural-geochronological approach helps to unravel the Zuccale Fault's architecture. By mapping its internal structure and dating some of its fault rocks, we constrained a deformation history lasting 20 Myr starting at ca. 22 Ma. Such long activity is recorded by now tightly juxtaposed brittle structural facies, i.e. different types of fault rocks. Our results also have implications on the regional evolution of the northern Apennines, of which the Zuccale Fault is an important structure.
Wan-Lin Hu
Solid Earth, 13, 1281–1290, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1281-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1281-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Having a seismic image is generally expected to enable us to better determine fault geometry and thus estimate geological slip rates accurately. However, the process of interpreting seismic images may introduce unintended uncertainties, which have not yet been widely discussed. Here, a case of a shear fault-bend fold in the frontal Himalaya is used to demonstrate how differences in interpretations can affect the following estimates of slip rates and dependent conclusions.
Manuel D. Menzel, Janos L. Urai, Estibalitz Ukar, Thierry Decrausaz, and Marguerite Godard
Solid Earth, 13, 1191–1218, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1191-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1191-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Mantle rocks can bind large quantities of carbon by reaction with CO2, but this capacity requires fluid pathways not to be clogged by carbonate. We studied mantle rocks from Oman to understand the mechanisms allowing their transformation into carbonate and quartz. Using advanced imaging techniques, we show that abundant veins were essential fluid pathways driving the reaction. Our results show that tectonic stress was important for fracture opening and a key ingredient for carbon fixation.
Jean-Baptiste P. Koehl, Steffen G. Bergh, and Arthur G. Sylvester
Solid Earth, 13, 1169–1190, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1169-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1169-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The San Andreas fault is a major active fault associated with ongoing earthquake sequences in southern California. The present study investigates the development of the Indio Hills area in the Coachella Valley along the main San Andreas fault and the Indio Hills fault. The Indio Hills area is located near an area with high ongoing earthquake activity (Brawley seismic zone), and, therefore, its recent tectonic evolution has implications for earthquake prediction.
Jin Lai, Dong Li, Yong Ai, Hongkun Liu, Deyang Cai, Kangjun Chen, Yuqiang Xie, and Guiwen Wang
Solid Earth, 13, 975–1002, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-975-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-975-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
(1) Structural diagenesis analysis is performed on the ultra-deep tight sandstone. (2) Fracture and intergranular pores are related to the low in situ stress magnitudes. (3) Dissolution is associated with the presence of fracture.
Hamed Fazlikhani, Wolfgang Bauer, and Harald Stollhofen
Solid Earth, 13, 393–416, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-393-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-393-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Interpretation of newly acquired FRANKEN 2D seismic survey data in southeeastern Germany shows that upper Paleozoic low-grade metasedimentary rocks and possible nappe units are transported by Variscan shear zones to ca. 65 km west of the Franconian Fault System (FFS). We show that the locations of post-Variscan upper Carboniferous–Permian normal faults and associated graben and half-graben basins are controlled by the geometry of underlying Variscan shear zones.
Xiaodong Ma, Marian Hertrich, Florian Amann, Kai Bröker, Nima Gholizadeh Doonechaly, Valentin Gischig, Rebecca Hochreutener, Philipp Kästli, Hannes Krietsch, Michèle Marti, Barbara Nägeli, Morteza Nejati, Anne Obermann, Katrin Plenkers, Antonio P. Rinaldi, Alexis Shakas, Linus Villiger, Quinn Wenning, Alba Zappone, Falko Bethmann, Raymi Castilla, Francisco Seberto, Peter Meier, Thomas Driesner, Simon Loew, Hansruedi Maurer, Martin O. Saar, Stefan Wiemer, and Domenico Giardini
Solid Earth, 13, 301–322, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-301-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-301-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Questions on issues such as anthropogenic earthquakes and deep geothermal energy developments require a better understanding of the fractured rock. Experiments conducted at reduced scales but with higher-resolution observations can shed some light. To this end, the BedrettoLab was recently established in an existing tunnel in Ticino, Switzerland, with preliminary efforts to characterize realistic rock mass behavior at the hectometer scale.
Berit Schwichtenberg, Florian Fusseis, Ian B. Butler, and Edward Andò
Solid Earth, 13, 41–64, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-41-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-41-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Hydraulic rock properties such as porosity and permeability are relevant factors that have an impact on groundwater resources, geological repositories and fossil fuel reservoirs. We investigate the influence of chemical compaction upon the porosity evolution in salt–biotite mixtures and related transport length scales by conducting laboratory experiments in combination with 4-D analysis. Our observations invite a renewed discussion of the effect of sheet silicates on chemical compaction.
David Healy and Stephen Paul Hicks
Solid Earth, 13, 15–39, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-15-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-15-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The energy transition requires operations in faulted rocks. To manage the technical challenges and public concern over possible induced earthquakes, we need to quantify the risks. We calculate the probability of fault slip based on uncertain inputs, stresses, fluid pressures, and the mechanical properties of rocks in fault zones. Our examples highlight the specific gaps in our knowledge. Citizen science projects could produce useful data and include the public in the discussions about hazards.
Manuel I. de Paz-Álvarez, Thomas G. Blenkinsop, David M. Buchs, George E. Gibbons, and Lesley Cherns
Solid Earth, 13, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We describe a virtual geological mapping course implemented in response to travelling and social restrictions derived from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The course was designed to replicate a physical mapping exercise as closely as possible with the aid of real field data and photographs collected by the authors during previous years in the Cantabrian Zone (NW Spain). The course is delivered through Google Earth via a KMZ file with outcrop descriptions and links to GitHub-hosted photographs.
Yueyang Xia, Jacob Geersen, Dirk Klaeschen, Bo Ma, Dietrich Lange, Michael Riedel, Michael Schnabel, and Heidrun Kopp
Solid Earth, 12, 2467–2477, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2467-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2467-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The 2 June 1994 Java tsunami earthquake ruptured in a seismically quiet subduction zone and generated a larger-than-expected tsunami. Here, we re-process a seismic line across the rupture area. We show that a subducting seamount is located up-dip of the mainshock in a region that did not rupture during the earthquake. Seamount subduction modulates the topography of the marine forearc and acts as a seismic barrier in the 1994 earthquake rupture.
Steffen Abe and Hagen Deckert
Solid Earth, 12, 2407–2424, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2407-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2407-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We use numerical simulations and laboratory experiments on rock samples to investigate how stress conditions influence the geometry and roughness of fracture surfaces. The roughness of the surfaces was analyzed in terms of absolute roughness and scaling properties. The results show that the surfaces are self-affine but with different scaling properties between the numerical models and the real rock samples. Results suggest that stress conditions have little influence on the surface roughness.
Chao Deng, Rixiang Zhu, Jianhui Han, Yu Shu, Yuxiang Wu, Kefeng Hou, and Wei Long
Solid Earth, 12, 2327–2350, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2327-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2327-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study uses seismic reflection data to interpret the geometric relationship and evolution of intra-basement and rift-related structures in the Enping sag in the northern South China Sea. Our observations suggest the primary control of pre-existing thrust faults is the formation of low-angle normal faults, with possible help from low-friction materials, and the significant role of pre-existing basement thrust faults in fault geometry, paleotopography, and syn-rift stratigraphy of rift basins.
Sonia Yeung, Marnie Forster, Emmanuel Skourtsos, and Gordon Lister
Solid Earth, 12, 2255–2275, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2255-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2255-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We do not know when the ancient Tethys Ocean lithosphere began to founder, but one clue can be found in subduction accreted tectonic slices, including Gondwanan basement terranes on the island of Ios, Cyclades, Greece. We propose a 250–300 km southwards jump of the subduction megathrust with a period of flat-slab subduction followed by slab break-off. The initiation and its subsequent rollback of a new subduction zone would explain the onset of Oligo–Miocene extension and accompanying magmatism.
Rahul Prabhakaran, Giovanni Bertotti, Janos Urai, and David Smeulders
Solid Earth, 12, 2159–2209, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2159-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2159-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Rock fractures are organized as networks with spatially varying arrangements. Due to networks' influence on bulk rock behaviour, it is important to quantify network spatial variation. We utilize an approach where fracture networks are treated as spatial graphs. By combining graph similarity measures with clustering techniques, spatial clusters within large-scale fracture networks are identified and organized hierarchically. The method is validated on a dataset with nearly 300 000 fractures.
Cited articles
Agosta, F., Alessandroni, M., Antonellini, M., Tondi, E., and Giorgioni, M.:
From fractures to flow: a field-based quantitative analysis of an outcropping carbonate reservoir, Tectonophysics, 490, 197–213, 2010.
Aliverti, E., Biron, M., Francesconi, A., Mattiello, D., Nardon, S., and
Peduzzi, C.: Data analysis, processing and 3D fracture network simulation at
wellbore scale for fractured reservoir description, in: Fracture and In-Situ
Stress Characterization of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs, edited by: Ameen, M.,
Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 209, 27–37, 2003.
Awdal, A., Healy, D., and Alsop, G. I.: Fracture patterns and petrophysical
properties of carbonates undergoing regional folding: A case study from
Kurdistan, N Iraq, Mar. Petrol. Geol., 71, 149–167, 2016.
Bachu, S.: Synthesis and model of formation-water flow, Alberta Basin, Canada, Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull., 79, 1159–1178, 1995.
Becker, I., Koehrer, B., Waldvogel, M., Jelinek, W., and Hilgers, C.: Comparing fracture statistics from outcrop and reservoir data using conventional manual and t-LiDAR derived scanlines in Ca2 carbonates from the Southern Permian Basin, Germany, Mar. Petrol. Geol., 95, 228–245, 2018.
Bemis, S. P., Micklethwaite, S., Turner, D., James, M. R., Akciz, S., Thiele,
S. T., and Bangash, H. A.: Ground-based and UAV-Based photogrammetry: A
multi-scale, high-resolution mapping tool for structural geology and paleoseismology, J. Struct. Geol., 69, 163–178, 2014.
Bergbauer, S. and Pollard, D. D.: A new conceptual fold-fracture model including prefolding joints, based on the Emigrant Gap anticline, Wyoming,
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 116, 294–307, 2004.
Bödvarsson, G. S. and Tsang, C. F.: Injection and thermal breakthrough in
fractured geothermal reservoirs, J. Geophys. Res.-Solid, 87, 1031–1048, 1982.
Bond, C. E., Wightman, R., and Ringrose, P. S.: The influence of fracture
anisotropy on CO2 flow, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 1284–1289, 2013.
Bond, C. E., Kremer, Y., Johnson, G., Hicks, N., Lister, R., Jones, D. G.,
Haszeldine, R. S., Saunders, I., Gilfillan, S. M., Shipton, Z. K., and Pearce, J.: The physical characteristics of a CO2 seeping fault: The implications of fracture permeability for carbon capture and storage integrity, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control, 61, 49–60, 2017.
Bonnet, E., Bour, O., Odling, N. E., Davy, P., Main, I., Cowie, P., and
Berkowitz, B.: Scaling of fracture systems in geological media, Rev. Geophys., 39, 347–383, 2001.
Bossennec, C., Frey, M., Seib, L., Bär, K., and Sass, I.: Multiscale
characterisation of fracture patterns of a crystalline reservoir analogue,
Geosciences, 11, 371, https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11090371, 2021.
Bowness, N., Cawood, A., Ferrill, D., Smart, K., and Bellow, H: Mineralogy
controls fracture containment in mechanically layered carbonates, Geol. Mag., 159, 1855–1873, 2022.
Burberry, C. M., Cannon, D. L., Cosgrove, J. W., and Engelder, T.: Fracture
patterns associated with the evolution of the Teton anticline, Sawtooth Range, Montana, USA, in: Folding and Fracturing of Rocks: 50 Years of Research since the Seminal Text Book of J. G. Ramsay, edited by: Bond, C. E.
and Lebit, H. D., Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 487, 229–261, 2019.
Caine, J. S., Evans, J. P., and Forster, C. B.: Fault zone architecture and
permeability structure, Geology, 24, 1025–1028, 1996.
Casini, G., Gillespie, P. A., Vergés, J., Romaire, I., Fernández, N.,
Casciello, E., Saura, E., Mehl, C., Homke, S., Embry, J. C., and Aghajari, L.: Sub-seismic fractures in foreland fold and thrust belts: insight from
the Lurestan Province, Zagros Mountains, Iran, Petrol. Geosci., 17, 263–282,
2011.
Castaing, C., Halawani, M. A., Gervais, F., Chilès, J. P., Genter, A.,
Bourgine, B., Ouillon, G., Brosse, J. M., Martin, P., Genna, A., and Janjou,
D.: Scaling relationships in intraplate fracture systems related to Red Sea
rifting, Tectonophysics, 261, 291–314, 1996.
Cawood, A. J., Bond, C. E., Howell, J. A., Butler, R. W., and Totake, Y.: LiDAR, UAV or compass-clinometer? Accuracy, coverage and the effects on structural models, J. Struct. Geol., 98, 67–82, 2017.
Cawood, A. J., Corradetti, A., Granado, P., and Tavani, S.: Detailed structural analysis of digital outcrops: A learning example from the
Kermanshah-Qulqula radiolarite basin, Zagros Belt, Iran, J. Struct. Geol.,
154, 104489, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2021.104489, 2022.
Chabani, A., Trullenque, G., Ledésert, B. A., and Klee, J.: Multiscale
Characterization of fracture patterns: A case study of the Noble Hills Range
(Death Valley, CA, USA), application to geothermal reservoirs, Geosciences,
11, 280, https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11070280, 2021.
Cooke, M. L. and Underwood, C. A.: Fracture termination and step-over at
bedding interfaces due to frictional slip and interface opening, J. Struct.
Geol., 23, 223–238, 2001.
Cooke, M. L., Simo, J. A., Underwood, C. A., and Rijken, P.: Mechanical
stratigraphic controls on fracture patterns within carbonates and implications for groundwater flow, Sediment. Geol., 184, 225–239, 2006.
Cooper, M. A.: The analysis of fracture systems in subsurface thrust structures from the Foothills of the Canadian Rockies, in: Thrust Tectonics,
edited by: McClay, K. R., Chapman & Hall, London, 391–406, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3066-0_35, 1991.
Cooper, S. P., Goodwin, L. B., and Lorenz, J. C.: Fracture and fault patterns
associated with basement-cored anticlines: The example of Teapot Dome, Wyoming, AAPG Bull., 90, 1903–1920, 2006.
Corradetti, A., Tavani, S., Parente, M., Iannace, A., Vinci, F., Pirmez, C.,
Torrieri, S., Giorgioni, M., Pignalosa, A., and Mazzoli, S.: Distribution
and arrest of vertical through-going joints in a seismic-scale carbonate
platform exposure (Sorrento peninsula, Italy): insights from integrating field survey and digital outcrop model, J. Struct. Geol., 108, 121–136, 2018.
Cosgrove, J. W. and Ameen, M. S. (Eds.): A comparison of the geometry, spatial organization and fracture patterns associated with forced folds and buckle folds, in: Forced Folds and Fractures, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 169, 7–21, 1999.
De Marsily, G., Delay, F., Gonçalvès, J., Renard, P., Teles, V., and
Violette, S.: Dealing with spatial heterogeneity, Hydrogeol. J., 13, 161–183, 2005.
Dimmen, V., Rotevatn, A., and Lecomte, I.: Imaging of small-scale faults in
seismic reflection data: Insights from seismic modelling of faults in
outcrop, Mar. Petrol. Geol., 147, 105980, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2022.105980, 2023.
Dunn, D. E., LaFountain, L. J., and Jackson, R. E.: Porosity dependence and
mechanism of brittle fracture in sandstones, J. Geophys. Res., 78,
2403–2417, 1973.
Ferrill, D. A., Winterle, J., Wittmeyer, G., Sims, D. W., Colton, S., Armstrong, A., and Morris, A. P.: Stressed rock strains groundwater at Yucca
Mountain, Nevada, GSA Today, 9, 1–8, 1999.
Ferrill, D. A., Smart, K. J., Cawood, A. J., and Morris, A. P.: The fold-thrust belt stress cycle: Superposition of normal, strike-slip, and thrust faulting deformation regimes, J. Struct. Geol., 148, 104362, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2021.104362, 2021.
Fischer, M. P. and Wilkerson, M. S.: Predicting the orientation of joints from fold shape: Results of pseudo–three-dimensional modeling and curvature
analysis, Geology, 28, 15–18, 2000.
Fox, D. B., Sutter, D., Beckers, K. F., Lukawski, M. Z., Koch, D. L., Anderson, B. J., and Tester, J. W.: Sustainable heat farming: Modeling extraction and recovery in discretely fractured geothermal reservoirs, Geothermics, 46, 42–54, 2013.
Francioni, M., Pace, P., Vitulli, M., Sciarra, N., and Calamita, F.:
Distribution of joints in the hinge-line culmination of foreland-verging
overturned anticlines: an example from the Montagna dei Fiori structure in
the Central Apennines of Italy, Geol. Mag., 156, 1445–1454, 2019.
Fuentes, F., DeCelles, P. G., and Constenius, K. N.: Regional structure and
kinematic history of the Cordilleran fold-thrust belt in northwestern Montana, USA, Geosphere, 8, 1104–1128, 2012.
Gautschi, A.: Hydrogeology of a fractured shale (Opalinus Clay): Implications for deep geological disposal of radioactive wastes, Hydrogeol. J., 9, 97–107, 2001.
Gholami, R., Raza, A., and Iglauer, S.: Leakage risk assessment of a CO2
storage site: A review, Earth-Sci. Rev., 223, 103849, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103849, 2021.
Ghosh, K. and Mitra, S.: Structural controls of fracture orientations,
intensity, and connectivity, Teton anticline, Sawtooth Range, Montana, Geol.
Soc. Am. Bull., 93, 995–1014, 2009.
Gillespie, P. A., Howard, C. B., Walsh, J. J., and Watterson, J.: Measurement
and characterisation of spatial distributions of fractures, Tectonophysics,
226, 113–141, 1993.
Gillespie, P. A., Walsh, J. J., Watterson, J., Bonson, C. G., and Manzocchi,
T.: Scaling relationships of joint and vein arrays from The Burren, Co. Clare, Ireland, J. Struct. Geol., 23, 183–201, 2001.
Glaas, C., Vidal, J., and Genter, A.: Structural characterization of naturally fractured geothermal reservoirs in the central Upper Rhine Graben,
J. Struct. Geol., 148, 104370, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2021.104370, 2021.
Gong, L., Wang, J., Gao, S., Fu, X., Liu, B., Miao, F., Zhou, X., and Meng,
Q.: Characterization, controlling factors and evolution of fracture
effectiveness in shale oil reservoirs, J. Petrol. Sci. Eng., 203, 108655, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2021.108655, 2021.
Green, A. G. and Mair, J. A.: Subhorizontal fractures in a granitic pluton:
Their detection and implications for radioactive waste disposal, Geophysics,
48, 1428–1449, 1983.
Hancock, P. L.: Brittle microtectonics: principles and practice, J. Struct.
Geol., 7, 437–457, 1985.
Hanks, C. L., Lorenz, J., Teufel, L., and Krumhardt, A. P.: Lithologic and
structural controls on natural fracture distribution and behavior within the
Lisburne Group, northeastern Brooks Range and North Slope subsurface, Alaska, AAPG Bull., 81, 1700–1720, 1997.
Hardebol, N. J., Maier, C., Nick, H., Geiger, S., Bertotti, G., and Boro, H.:
Multiscale fracture network characterization and impact on flow: A case study on the Latemar carbonate platform, J. Geophys. Res.-Solid, 120, 8197–8222, 2015.
Harris, J. F., Taylor, G. L., and Walper, J. L.: Relation of deformational
fractures in sedimentary rocks to regional and local structure, AAPG Bull.,
44, 1853–1873, 1960.
Healy, D., Rizzo, R. E., Cornwell, D. G., Farrell, N. J., Watkins, H., Timms,
N. E., Gomez-Rivas, E., and Smith, M.: FracPaQ: A MATLABTM
toolbox for the quantification of fracture patterns, J. Struct. Geol., 95,
1–16, 2017.
Hennings, P. H., Olson, J. E., and Thompson, L. B.: Combining outcrop data and three-dimensional structural models to characterise fractured reservoirs: an example from Wyoming, AAPG Bull., 84, 830–849, 2000.
Holl, J. E. and Anastasio, D. J.: Deformation of a foreland carbonate thrust
system, Sawtooth Range, Montana, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 104, 994–953, 1992.
Hooker, J. N., Laubach, S. E., and Marrett, R.: Fracture-aperture size – Frequency, spatial distribution, and growth processes in strata-bounded and non-strata-bounded fractures, Cambrian Mesón Group, NW Argentina, J. Struct. Geol., 54, 54–71, 2013.
Hugman, R. H. H. and Friedman, M.: Effects of texture and composition on
mechanical behaviour of experimentally deformed carbonate rocks, AAPG Bull.,
63, 1478–1489, 1979.
Humair, F., Abellan, A., Carrea, D., Matasci, B., Epard, J. L., and
Jaboyedoff, M.: Geological layers detection and characterisation using high
resolution 3D point clouds: example of a box-fold in the Swiss Jura
Mountains, Eur. J. Remote Sens., 48, 541–568, 2015.
Iding, M. and Ringrose, P.: Evaluating the impact of fractures on the
performance of the In Salah CO2 storage site, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control, 4, 242–248, 2010.
Inks, T. L., Engelder, T., Jenner, E., Golob, B., Hocum, J. S., and O'Brien,
D. G.: Marcellus fracture characterization using P-wave azimuthal velocity
attributes: Comparison with production and outcrop data, Interpretation, 3, SU1–SU15, 2015.
Ishii, E.: Constant-head step injection tests to quantify the stress dependence of fracture transmissivity in an excavation damaged zone: A case
study from the Horonobe Underground Research Laboratory, Int. J. Rock Mech.
Min. Sci., 159, 105229, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2022.105229, 2022.
James, M. R. and Robson, S.: Straightforward reconstruction of 3D surfaces
and topography with a camera: Accuracy and geoscience application, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 117, F03017, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011jf002289, 2012.
Kou, Z., Wang, T., Chen, Z., and Jiang, J.: A fast and reliable methodology
to evaluate maximum CO2 storage capacity of depleted coal seams: A case
study, Energy, 231, 120992, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.120992, 2021.
Ladeira, F. L. and Price, N. J.: Relationship between fracture spacing and bed thickness, J. Struct. Geol., 3, 179–183, 1981.
Laubach, S. E., Olson, J. E., and Gross, M. R.: Mechanical and fracture
stratigraphy, AAPG Bull., 93, 1413–1426, 2009.
Laubach, S. E., Lander, R. H., Criscenti, L. J., Anovitz, L. M., Urai, J. L.,
Pollyea, R. M., Hooker, J. N., Narr, W., Evans, M. A., Kerisit, S. N., and
Olson, J. E.: The role of chemistry in fracture pattern development and
opportunities to advance interpretations of geological materials, Rev. Geophys., 57, 1065–1111, 2019.
Li, L. and Lee, S. H.: Efficient field-scale simulation of black oil in a
naturally fractured reservoir through discrete fracture networks and homogenized media, SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng., 11, 750–758, 2008.
Lisle, R. J.: Constant bed-length folding: three-dimensional geometrical
implications, J. Struct. Geol., 14, 245–252, 1992.
Lisle, R. J.: Detection of zones of abnormal strains in structures using
Gaussian curvature analysis, AAPG Bull., 78, 1811–1819, 1994.
Ma, J., Vaszi, A. Z., Couples, G. D., and Harris, S. D.: The link between a
heterogeneous model and its flow response: examples from fault damage zones
highlighting issues in domain discretization and flow simulation, in:
Structurally Complex Reservoirs, edited by: Jolley, S. J., Barr, D., Walsh,
J. J., and Knipe, R. J., Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 292, 337–352, 2007.
Mäkel, G. H.: The modelling of fractured reservoirs: Constraints and
potential for fracture network geometry and hydraulics analysis, in:
Structurally Complex Reservoirs, edited by: Jolley, S. J., Barr, D., Walsh,
J. J., and Knipe, R. J., Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 292, 375–403, 2007.
Marrett, R. and Allmendinger, R. W.: Amount of extension on “small” faults:
An example from the Viking graben, Geology, 20, 47–50, 1992.
Marshak, S., Karlstrom, K., and Timmons, J. M.: Inversion of Proterozoic
extensional faults: An explanation for the pattern of Laramide and Ancestral
Rockies intracratonic deformation, United States, Geology, 28, 735–738, 2000.
Mauldon, M., Dunne, W. M., and Rohrbaugh Jr., M. B.: Circular Scanlines and
circular windows: new tools for characterizing the geometry of fracture traces, J. Struct. Geol., 23, 247–258, 2001.
McGinnis, R. N., Ferrill, D. A., Smart, K. J., Morris, A. P., Higuera-Diaz, C., and Prawica, D.: Pitfalls of using entrenched fracture relationships:
Fractures in bedded carbonates of the Hidden Valley Fault Zone, Canyon Lake
Gorge, Comal County, Texas, AAPG Bull., 99, 2221–2245, 2015.
McGinnis, R. N., Ferrill, D. A., Morris, A. P., Smart, K. J., and Lehrmann, D.: Mechanical stratigraphic controls on natural fracture spacing and
penetration, J. Struct. Geol., 95, 160–170, 2017.
McQuillan, H.: Small-scale fracture density in Asmari Formation of Southwest
Iran and its relation to bed thickness and structural setting, AAPG Bull., 57, 2367–2385, 1973.
McQuillan, H.: Fracture patterns on Kuh-e Asmari anticline, southwest Iran,
AAPG Bull., 58, 236–246, 1974.
Medici, G., Smeraglia, L., Torabi, A., and Botter, C.: Review of modeling
approaches to groundwater flow in deformed carbonate aquifers, Groundwater,
59, 334–351, 2021.
Mitra, S.: Duplex structures and imbricate thrust systems: geometry, structural position, and hydrocarbon potential, AAPG Bull., 70, 1087–1112,
1986.
Moore, J. P. and Walsh, J. J.: Quantitative analysis of Cenozoic faults and
fractures and their impact on groundwater flow in the bedrock aquifers of
Ireland, Hydrogeol. J., 29, 2613–2632, 2021.
Morris, A. P., Ferrill, D. A., Sims, D. W., Franklin, N., and Waiting, D. J.:
Patterns of fault displacement and strain at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, J. Struct. Geol., 26, 1707–1725, 2004.
Mudge, M. R.: A résumé of the structural geology of the Northern
Disturbed Belt, northwest Montana, Geological Studies of the Cordilleran
Thrust Belt, 1, 91–122, 1982.
Mudge, M. R. and Earhart, R. L.: Bedrock geologic map of part of the northern Disturbed Belt, Lewis and Clark, Teton, Pondera, Glacier, Flathead, Cascade, and Powell counties, Montana: US Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigation Series Map I-1375, scale
Nadimi, S., Forbes, B., Moore, J., Podgorney, R., and McLennan, J. D.: Utah
FORGE: Hydrogeothermal modeling of a granitic based discrete fracture
network, Geothermics, 87, 101853, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2020.101853, 2020.
Narr, W. and Suppe, J.: Joint spacing in sedimentary rocks, J. Struct. Geol., 13, 1037–1048, 1991.
Nelson, R.: Geologic analysis of naturally fractured reservoirs, Elsevier,
ISBN 978-0-88415-317-7, 2001.
Nichols, K. M.: Stratigraphy of the upper part of The Madison Group, Sawtooth Range, northwestern
Montana, Montana Geological Society, 1984 Field Conference, Northwestern Montana, I27-I4A, 1984.
Nichols, K. M.: Regional Significance of Lithologic Correlation of Mississippian Rocks at Pentagon Mountain and the Sawtooth Range, Northwestern Montana, USGS Open-File Report 86-39 (one Plate), USGS, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr8639, 1986.
Odling, N. E.: Scaling and connectivity of joint systems in sandstones from
western Norway, J. Struct. Geol., 19, 1257–1271, 1997.
Price, N. J.: Fault and Joint Development in Brittle and Semi-Brittle Rock,
Pergamon, New York, ISBN 978-0-08-011275-6, 1966.
Ramsay, J. G.: Folding and fracturing of rocks, McGraw Hill Book Company, 568 pp., ISBN 193066589X, 1967.
Rawnsley, K., De Keijzer, M., Wei, L., Bettembourg, S., Asyee, W., Massaferro, J. L., Swaby, P., Drysdale, D., and Boettcher, D.: Characterizing
fracture and matrix heterogeneities in folded Devonian carbonate thrust sheets, Waterton tight gas fields, Western Canada, in: Fractured Reservoirs,
edited by: Lonergan, L., Jolly, R. J. H., Rawnsley, K., and Sanderson, D. J.,
Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 270, 265–279, 2007.
Scheiber, T., Fredin, O., Viola, G., Jarna, A., Gasser, D., and Łapińska-Viola, R.: Manual extraction of bedrock lineaments from
high-resolution LiDAR data: methodological bias and human perception, GFF, 137, 362–372, 2015.
Seers, T. D. and Hodgetts, D.: Comparison of digital outcrop and conventional
data collection approaches for the characterization of naturally fractured
reservoir analogues, in: Advances in the Study of Fractured Reservoirs,
edited by: Spence, G. H., Redfern, J., Aguilera, R., Bevan, T. G., Cosgrove,
J. W., Couples, G. D., and Daniel, J.-M., Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 374, 51–77, 2014.
Shaik, A. R., Rahman, S. S., Tran, N. H., and Tran, T.: Numerical simulation of fluid-rock coupling heat transfer in naturally fractured geothermal system, Appl. Therm. Eng., 31, 1600–1606, 2011.
Sinclair, S.: Analysis of macroscopic fractures on Teton anticline, northwestern Montana, MS thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas, 102 pp., https://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-1980-THESIS-S616 (last access: 23 June 2022), 1980.
Singdahlsen, D. S.: Structural geology of the Swift Reservoir Culmination,
Sawtooth Range, Montana, MSc Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman,
Montana, 124 pp., https://scholarworks.montana.edu/xmlui/handle/1/4005 (last access: 23 June 2022), 1986.
Smeraglia, L., Mercuri, M., Tavani, S., Pignalosa, A., Kettermann, M., Billi, A., and Carminati, E.: 3D Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) models of damage zone fluid corridors within a reservoir-scale normal fault in carbonates: multiscale approach using field data and UAV imagery, Mar. Petrol. Geol., 126, 104902, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2021.104902, 2021.
Spence, G. H., Couples, G. D., Bevan, T. G., Aguilera, R., Cosgrove, J. W.,
Daniel, J. M., and Redfern, J. (Eds.): Advances in the study of naturally fractured hydrocarbon reservoirs: a broad integrated interdisciplinary applied topic, in: Advances in the Study of Fractured Reservoirs, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 374, 1–22, 2014.
Spooner, J. A.: Field and laboratory study of fracture characteristics as a
function of bed curvature in folded dolomites, Sawtooth Mountains, Montana,
MS thesis, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 135 pp., 1984.
Stearns, D. W.: Macrofracture patterns on Teton Anticline, northwest Montana,
Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 45, 107–108, 1964.
Stearns, D. W.: Fracture as a mechanism of flow in naturally deformed layered
rocks. In Proceedings of the Conference on Research in Tectonics, Kink Bands
and Brittle Deformation, Geol. Surv. Can. Pap., 68, 79–96, 1969.
Stearns, D. W. and Friedman, M.: Reservoirs in fractured rock: Geologic
exploration methods, in: Stratigraphic Oil and Gas Fields: Classification,
Exploration Methods, and Case Histories, edited by: King, R. E., AAPG Memoirs, 16, 82–106, 1972.
Stewart, J. H., Anderson, R. E., Aranda-Gómez, J. J., Beard, L. S.,
Billingsley, G. H., Cather, S. M., Dilles, J. H., Dokka, R. K., Faulds, J. E., Ferrari, L., and Grose, T. L.: Map showing Cenozoic tilt domains and
associated structural features, western North America. Accommodation zones
and transfer zones: The regional segmentation of the Basin and Range province, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 323, 1998.
Streltsova, T. D.: Hydrodynamics of groundwater flow in a fractured formation, Water Resour. Res., 12, 405–414, 1976.
Strijker, G., Bertotti, G., and Luthi, S. M.: Multi-scale fracture network
analysis from an outcrop analogue: A case study from the Cambro-Ordovician
clastic succession in Petra, Jordan, Mar. Petrol. Geol., 38, 104–116, 2012.
Sun, J., Gamboa, E. S., Schechter, D., and Rui, Z.: An integrated workflow
for characterization and simulation of complex fracture networks utilizing
microseismic and horizontal core data, J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng., 34, 1347–1360,
2016.
Sun, X., Gomez-Rivas, E., Alcalde, J., Martín-Martín, J. D., Ma, C., Muñoz-López, D., Cruset, D., Cantarero, I., Griera, A., and Travé, A.: Fracture distribution in a folded fluvial succession: the
Puig-reig anticline (South-eastern Pyrenees), Mar. Petrol. Geol., 132, 105169, https://doi.org/10.31223/x5j31s, 2021.
Tamagawa, T. and Pollard, D. D.: Fracture permeability created by perturbed
stress fields around active faults in a fractured basement reservoir, AAPG
Bull., 92, 743–764, 2008.
Tavani, S., Storti, F., Lacombe, O., Corradetti, A., Muñoz, J. A., and
Mazzoli, S.: A review of deformation pattern templates in foreland basin
systems and fold-and-thrust belts: Implications for the state of stress in
the frontal regions of thrust wedges, Earth-Sci. Rev., 141, 82–104, 2015.
Thomas, L. K., Dixon, T. N., and Pierson, R. G.: Fractured reservoir simulation, Soc. Petrol. Eng. J., 23, 42–54, 1983.
Triantafyllou, A., Watlet, A., Le Mouélic, S., Camelbeeck, T., Civet, F., Kaufmann, O., Quinif, Y., and Vandycke, S.: 3-D digital outcrop model for analysis of brittle deformation and lithological mapping (Lorette cave, Belgium), J. Struct. Geol., 120, 55–66, 2019.
Ukar, E., Laubach, S. E., and Hooker, J. N.: Outcrops as guides to subsurface
natural fractures: Example from the Nikanassin Formation tight-gas sandstone, Grande Cache, Alberta foothills, Canada, Mar. Petrol. Geol., 103, 255–275, 2019.
Vollgger, S. A. and Cruden, A. R.: Mapping folds and fractures in basement and cover rocks using UAV photogrammetry, Cape Liptrap and Cape Paterson,
Victoria, Australia, J. Struct. Geol., 85, 168–187, 2016.
Wallace, C. A., Lidke, D. J., and Schmidt, R. G.: Faults of the central part of the Lewis and Clark line and fragmentation of the Late Cretaceous foreland
basin in west-central Montana, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 102, 1021–1037, 1990.
Wang, Q., Narr, W., and Laubach, S. E.: Quantitative characterization of
fracture spatial arrangement and intensity in a reservoir anticline using
horizontal wellbore image logs and an outcrop analogue, Mar. Petrol. Geol.,
152, 106238, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2023.106238, 2023.
Ward, E. G. and Sears, J. W.: Reinterpretation of fractures at Swift Reservoir, Rocky Mountain thrust front, Montana: Passage of a Jurassic forebulge?, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 433, 197–210, 2007.
Watanabe, K. and Takahashi, H.: Fractal geometry characterization of geothermal reservoir fracture networks, J. Geophys. Res.-Solid, 100, 521–528, 1995.
Watkins, H., Butler, R. W., Bond, C. E., and Healy, D.: Influence of structural position on fracture networks in the Torridon Group, Achnashellach fold and thrust belt, NW Scotland, J. Struct. Geol., 74, 64–80, 2015.
Watkins, H., Healy, D., Bond, C. E., and Butler, R. W.: Implications of
heterogeneous fracture distribution on reservoir quality; an analogue from
the Torridon Group sandstone, Moine Thrust Belt, NW Scotland, J. Struct.
Geol., 108, 180–197, 2018.
Watkins, H., Bond, C. E., Cawood, A. J., Cooper, M. A., and Warren, M. J.:
Fracture distribution on the Swift Reservoir Anticline, Montana: Implications for structural and lithological controls on fracture intensity, in: Folding and Fracturing of Rocks: 50 Years of Research since the Seminal Text Book of J. G. Ramsay, edited by: Bond, C. E. and Lebit, H. D., Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 487, 209–228, 2019.
Weil, A. B. and Yonkee, A.: The Laramide orogeny: Current understanding of
the structural style, timing, and spatial distribution of the classic foreland thick-skinned tectonic system. In: Laurentia: Turning Points in the
Evolution of a Continent, edited by: Whitmeyer, S. J., Williams, M. L.,
Kellett, D. A., and Tikoff, B., Geol. Soc. Am. Memoirs, 220, https://doi.org/10.1130/2022.1220(33), 2023.
Wennberg, O. P., Svånå, T., Azizzadeh, M., Aqrawi, A. M. M., Brockbank, P., Lyslo, K. B., and Ogilvie, S.: Fracture intensity vs. mechanical stratigraphy in platform top carbonates: the Aquitanian of the Asmari Formation, Khaviz Anticline, Zagros, SW Iran, Petrol. Geosci., 12, 235–246, 2006.
Wennberg, O. P., Azizzadeh, M., Aqrawi, A. A. M., Blanc, E., Brockbank, P.,
Lyslo, K. B., Pickard, N., Salem, L. D., and Svånå, T.: The Khaviz
Anticline: an outcrop analogue to giant fractured Asmari Formation reservoirs in SW Iran, in: Fractured Reservoirs, edited by: Lonergan, L., Jolly, R. J. H., Rawnsley, K., and Sanderson, D. J., Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 270, 23–42, 2007.
Worthington, M. H. and Lubbe, R.: The scaling of fracture compliance, in:
Fractured Reservoirs, edited by: Lonergan, L., Jolly, R. J. H., Rawnsley, K.,
and Sanderson, D. J., Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 270, 73–82, 2007.
Wu, H. and Pollard, D. D.: An experimental study of the relationship between
joint spacing and layer thickness, J. Struct. Geol., 17, 887–905, 1995.
Yielding, G., Needham, T., and Jones, H.: Sampling of fault populations using
sub-surface data: a review, J. Struct. Geol., 18, 135–146, 1996.
Yin, T. and Chen, Q.: Simulation-based investigation on the accuracy of discrete fracture network (DFN) representation, Comput. Geotech., 121, 103487, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2020.103487, 2020.
Yu, H., Lu, C., Chen, W., and Li, H.: Permeability changes in fractured Tamusu mudstone in the context of radioactive waste disposal, Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ., 80, 7945–7957, 2021.
Short summary
Here we test conceptual models of fracture development by investigating fractures across multiple scales. We find that most fractures increase in abundance towards the fold hinge, and we interpret these as being fold related. Other fractures at the site show inconsistent orientations and are unrelated to fold formation. Our results show that predicting fracture patterns requires the consideration of multiple geologic variables.
Here we test conceptual models of fracture development by investigating fractures across...
