Articles | Volume 11, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-95-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-95-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
22 Jan 2020
Research article |
| 22 Jan 2020
| 22 Jan 2020
Fault zone architecture of a large plate-bounding strike-slip fault: a case study from the Alpine Fault, New Zealand
Bernhard Schuck
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Section 4.2: Geomechanics and Scientific Drilling, Potsdam, Germany
now at: Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Tectonics and Structural Geology, Mainz, Germany
Anja M. Schleicher
Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Section 3.1: Inorganic and Isotope Geochemistry, Potsdam, Germany
Christoph Janssen
Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Section 4.2: Geomechanics and Scientific Drilling, Potsdam, Germany
Virginia G. Toy
Department of Geology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
now at: Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Tectonics and Structural Geology, Mainz, Germany
Georg Dresen
Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Section 4.2: Geomechanics and Scientific Drilling, Potsdam, Germany
University of Potsdam, Institute of Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany
Related authors
Bernhard Schuck, Lisa Richter, Raphael Dlugosch, and Lukas Pollok
Saf. Nucl. Waste Disposal, 2, 57–57, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-57-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-57-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
BGE, the implementer of Germany’s site selection procedure, recently outlined an alternative exploration approach. This contribution aims to detail and discuss it, based on BGR’s experience regarding the exploration of the subsurface. It focuses on geoscientific aspects and elaborates on the two main requirements to this approach, namely acceptance by the scientific community and capability to account for the specific characteristics of the host rock types while (still) ensuring comparability.
Thomas Mann, Bernhard Schuck, Tilo Kneuker, Lukas Pollok, André Bornemann, and Jochen Erbacher
Saf. Nucl. Waste Disposal, 2, 53–53, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-53-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-53-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This contribution outlines that the BGE, implementer of Germany’s site selection procedure for a nuclear waste repository, likely underestimates the time necessary to characterize claystones within potential siting regions. Our latest experience originates from two research projects that developed sequence stratigraphic frameworks for largely homogenous claystone successions in Germany. We reckoned a total duration of 5 years for the workload in each of the abovementioned research projects.
Bernhard Schuck and Tilo Kneuker
Saf. Nucl. Waste Disposal, 1, 47–48, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-1-47-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-1-47-2021, 2021
Bernhard Schuck, Lisa Richter, Raphael Dlugosch, and Lukas Pollok
Saf. Nucl. Waste Disposal, 2, 57–57, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-57-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-57-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
BGE, the implementer of Germany’s site selection procedure, recently outlined an alternative exploration approach. This contribution aims to detail and discuss it, based on BGR’s experience regarding the exploration of the subsurface. It focuses on geoscientific aspects and elaborates on the two main requirements to this approach, namely acceptance by the scientific community and capability to account for the specific characteristics of the host rock types while (still) ensuring comparability.
Thomas Mann, Bernhard Schuck, Tilo Kneuker, Lukas Pollok, André Bornemann, and Jochen Erbacher
Saf. Nucl. Waste Disposal, 2, 53–53, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-53-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-53-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This contribution outlines that the BGE, implementer of Germany’s site selection procedure for a nuclear waste repository, likely underestimates the time necessary to characterize claystones within potential siting regions. Our latest experience originates from two research projects that developed sequence stratigraphic frameworks for largely homogenous claystone successions in Germany. We reckoned a total duration of 5 years for the workload in each of the abovementioned research projects.
Carolin M. Boese, Grzegorz Kwiatek, Thomas Fischer, Katrin Plenkers, Juliane Starke, Felix Blümle, Christoph Janssen, and Georg Dresen
Solid Earth, 13, 323–346, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-323-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-323-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Hydraulic stimulation experiments in underground facilities allow for placing monitoring equipment close to and surrounding the stimulated rock under realistic and complex conditions at depth. We evaluate how accurately the direction-dependent velocity must be known for high-resolution seismic monitoring during stimulation. Induced transient deformation in rocks only 2.5–5 m apart may differ significantly in magnitude and style, and monitoring requires sensitive sensors adapted to the frequency.
Hamed Amiri, Francesco Cappuccio, Mai-Linh Doan, Marianne Conin, and Virginia Toy
Solid Earth Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/se-2021-150, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-2021-150, 2022
Publication in SE not foreseen
Short summary
Short summary
In March 2011, the Mw ~9 Tohoku-oki earthquake, one of the largest seismic events ever recorded, occurred across a megathrust fault in the west of the Japan trench. This devastating earthquake stressed the need for more detailed studies on the fault zone behavior and the main causes of this event.
Bernhard Schuck and Tilo Kneuker
Saf. Nucl. Waste Disposal, 1, 47–48, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-1-47-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-1-47-2021, 2021
Martina Kirilova, Virginia Toy, Katrina Sauer, François Renard, Klaus Gessner, Richard Wirth, Xianghui Xiao, and Risa Matsumura
Solid Earth, 11, 2425–2438, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2425-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2425-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Processes associated with open pores can change the physical properties of rocks and cause earthquakes. In borehole samples from the Alpine Fault zone, we show that many pores in these rocks were filled by weak materials that can slide easily. The amount of open spaces was thus reduced, and fluids circulating within them built up high pressures. Both weak materials and high pressures within pores reduce the rock strength; thus the state of pores here can trigger the next Alpine Fault earthquake.
Steven B. Kidder, Virginia G. Toy, David J. Prior, Timothy A. Little, Ashfaq Khan, and Colin MacRae
Solid Earth, 9, 1123–1139, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1123-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1123-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
By quantifying trace concentrations of titanium in quartz (a known geologic “thermometer”), we constrain the temperature profile for the deep crust along the Alpine Fault. We show there is a sharp change from fairly uniform temperatures at deep levels to a very steep gradient in temperature in the upper kilometers of the crust.
Jack N. Williams, Virginia G. Toy, Cécile Massiot, David D. McNamara, Steven A. F. Smith, and Steven Mills
Solid Earth, 9, 469–489, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-469-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-469-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We present new data on the orientation of fractures, their fill, and their density around the Alpine Fault, a plate boundary fault on the South Island of New Zealand. Fractures < 160 m of the fault are filled and show a range of orientations, whilst fractures at greater distances (< 500 m) are open and parallel to the rock's mechanical weakness. We interpret the latter fracture set to reflect near-surface processes, whilst the latter are potentially linked to deep-seated Alpine Fault seismicity.
Martina Kirilova, Virginia Toy, Jeremy S. Rooney, Carolina Giorgetti, Keith C. Gordon, Cristiano Collettini, and Toru Takeshita
Solid Earth, 9, 223–231, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-223-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-223-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Graphite crystallinity “irreversibly” increases with temperature and it has been calibrated as a thermometer recording peak temperatures experienced by a rock. To examine the possibility of mechanical modifications of graphite structure and the impacts on graphite thermometry we performed deformation experiments. Raman spectroscopy demonstrates a reduction in crystallinity due to mechanical reworking in the brittle field. This finding clearly compromises the validity of the graphite thermometry.
Jack N. Williams, Joseph J. Bevitt, and Virginia G. Toy
Sci. Dril., 22, 35–42, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-22-35-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-22-35-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We compare images of drillcore from the Alpine Fault in New Zealand that were collected using X-ray computed tomography (CT) and neutron tomography (NT). Both techniques provide 3-D images of the core's internal structure, which would not be possible through visual analysis alone. We find that CT scans are more beneficial, as they can image a wider range of rock types, and this scanning technique is more practical. Nevertheless, NT provides complementary scans over limited intervals of core.
Marco Bohnhoff, Georg Dresen, Ulubey Ceken, Filiz Tuba Kadirioglu, Recai Feyiz Kartal, Tugbay Kilic, Murat Nurlu, Kenan Yanik, Digdem Acarel, Fatih Bulut, Hisao Ito, Wade Johnson, Peter Eric Malin, and Dave Mencin
Sci. Dril., 22, 19–28, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-22-19-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-22-19-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
GONAF (Geophysical Observatory at the North Anatolian Fault) has been installed around the eastern Sea of Marmara section where a M>7 earthquake is pending to capture the seismic and strain activity preceding, during, and after such an anticipated event. GONAF is currently comprised of seven 300 m deep vertical seismic profiling stations and four collocated 100 m deep borehole strain meters. GONAF is the first ICDP-driven project with a primary focus on long-term fault-zone monitoring.
J. Shervais, J. Evans, V. Toy, J. Kirkpatrick, A. Clarke, and J. Eichelberger
Sci. Dril., 18, 19–33, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-18-19-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-18-19-2014, 2014
Related subject area
Subject area: Tectonic plate interactions, magma genesis, and lithosphere deformation at all scales | Editorial team: Structural geology and tectonics, paleoseismology, rock physics, experimental deformation | Discipline: Structural geology
Driven magmatism and crustal thinning of coastal southern China in response to subduction
Selection and characterization of the target fault for fluid-induced activation and earthquake rupture experiments
Naturally fractured reservoir characterisation in heterogeneous sandstones: insight for uranium in situ recovery (Imouraren, Niger)
Influence of water on crystallographic preferred orientation patterns in a naturally-deformed quartzite
Multiscalar 3D temporal structural characterisation of Smøla island, mid-Norwegian passive margin: an analogue for unravelling the tectonic history of offshore basement highs
Localized shear versus distributed strain accumulation as shear-accommodation mechanisms in ductile shear zones: Constraining their dictating factors
Impact of faults on the remote stress state
Subduction plate interface shear stress associated with rapid subduction at deep slow earthquake depths: example from the Sanbagawa belt, southwestern Japan
Multiple phase rifting and subsequent inversion in the West Netherlands Basin: implications for geothermal reservoir characterization
Analogue modelling of basin inversion: implications for the Araripe Basin (Brazil)
Geomorphic expressions of active rifting reflect the role of structural inheritance: A new model for the evolution of the Shanxi Rift, North China
Natural fracture patterns at Swift Reservoir anticline, NW Montana: the influence of structural position and lithology from multiple observation scales
Rapid hydration and weakening of anhydrite under stress: implications for natural hydration in the Earth's crust and mantle
Analogue experiments on releasing and restraining bends and their application to the study of the Barents Shear Margin
Structural framework and timing of the Pahtohavare Cu ± Au deposits, Kiruna mining district, Sweden
Does the syn- versus post-rift thickness ratio have an impact on the inversion-related structural style?
Inversion of accommodation zones in salt-bearing extensional systems: insights from analog modeling
Structural control of inherited salt structures during inversion of a domino basement-fault system from an analogue modelling approach
Kinematics and time-resolved evolution of the main thrust-sense shear zone in the Eo-Alpine orogenic wedge (the Vinschgau Shear Zone, eastern Alps)
Role of inheritance during tectonic inversion of a rift system in basement-involved to salt-decoupled transition: analogue modelling and application to the Pyrenean–Biscay system
Water release and homogenization by dynamic recrystallization of quartz
Hydrothermal activity of the Lake Abhe geothermal field (Djibouti): Structural controls and paths for further exploration
Time-dependent frictional properties of granular materials used in analogue modelling: implications for mimicking fault healing during reactivation and inversion
Large grain-size-dependent rheology contrasts of halite at low differential stress: evidence from microstructural study of naturally deformed gneissic Zechstein 2 rock salt (Kristallbrockensalz) from the northern Netherlands
Analogue modelling of the inversion of multiple extensional basins in foreland fold-and-thrust belts
A contribution to the quantification of crustal shortening and kinematics of deformation across the Western Andes ( ∼ 20–22° S)
Rift thermal inheritance in the SW Alps (France): insights from RSCM thermometry and 1D thermal numerical modelling
The Luangwa Rift Active Fault Database and fault reactivation along the southwestern branch of the East African Rift
Clustering has a meaning: optimization of angular similarity to detect 3D geometric anomalies in geological terrains
Shear zone evolution and the path of earthquake rupture
Mechanical compaction mechanisms in the input sediments of the Sumatra subduction complex – insights from microstructural analysis of cores from IODP Expedition 362
Detecting micro fractures: a comprehensive comparison of conventional and machine-learning-based segmentation methods
Multiscale lineament analysis and permeability heterogeneity of fractured crystalline basement blocks
Structural characterization and K–Ar illite dating of reactivated, complex and heterogeneous fault zones: lessons from the Zuccale Fault, Northern Apennines
How do differences in interpreting seismic images affect estimates of geological slip rates?
Progressive veining during peridotite carbonation: insights from listvenites in Hole BT1B, Samail ophiolite (Oman)
Tectonic evolution of the Indio Hills segment of the San Andreas fault in southern California, southwestern USA
Structural diagenesis in ultra-deep tight sandstones in the Kuqa Depression, Tarim Basin, China
Variscan structures and their control on latest to post-Variscan basin architecture: insights from the westernmost Bohemian Massif and southeastern Germany
Multi-disciplinary characterizations of the BedrettoLab – a new underground geoscience research facility
Biotite supports long-range diffusive transport in dissolution–precipitation creep in halite through small porosity fluctuations
De-risking the energy transition by quantifying the uncertainties in fault stability
Virtual field trip to the Esla Nappe (Cantabrian Zone, NW Spain): delivering traditional geological mapping skills remotely using real data
Marine forearc structure of eastern Java and its role in the 1994 Java tsunami earthquake
Roughness of fracture surfaces in numerical models and laboratory experiments
Impact of basement thrust faults on low-angle normal faults and rift basin evolution: a case study in the Enping sag, Pearl River Basin
Evidence for and significance of the Late Cretaceous Asteroussia event in the Gondwanan Ios basement terranes
Investigating spatial heterogeneity within fracture networks using hierarchical clustering and graph distance metrics
Dating folding beyond folding, from layer-parallel shortening to fold tightening, using mesostructures: lessons from the Apennines, Pyrenees, and Rocky Mountains
Deformation-enhanced diagenesis and bacterial proliferation in the Nankai accretionary prism
Jinbao Su, Wenbin Zhu, and Guangwei Li
Solid Earth, 15, 1133–1141, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1133-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1133-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The late Mesozoic igneous rocks in the South China Block exhibit flare-ups and lulls, which form in compressional or extensional backgrounds. The ascending of magma forms a mush-like head and decreases crustal thickness. The presence of faults and pre-existing magmas will accelerate emplacement of underplating magma. The magmatism at different times may be formed under similar subduction conditions, and the boundary compression forces will delay magma ascent.
Peter Achtziger-Zupančič, Alberto Ceccato, Alba Simona Zappone, Giacomo Pozzi, Alexis Shakas, Florian Amann, Whitney Maria Behr, Daniel Escallon Botero, Domenico Giardini, Marian Hertrich, Mohammadreza Jalali, Xiaodong Ma, Men-Andrin Meier, Julian Osten, Stefan Wiemer, and Massimo Cocco
Solid Earth, 15, 1087–1112, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1087-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-1087-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We detail the selection and characterization of a fault zone for earthquake experiments in the Fault Activation and Earthquake Ruptures (FEAR) project at the Bedretto Lab. FEAR, which studies earthquake processes, overcame data collection challenges near faults. The fault zone in Rotondo granite was selected based on geometry, monitorability, and hydro-mechanical properties. Remote sensing, borehole logging, and geological mapping were used to create a 3D model for precise monitoring.
Maxime Jamet, Gregory Ballas, Roger Soliva, Olivier Gerbeaud, Thierry Lefebvre, Christine Leredde, and Didier Loggia
Solid Earth, 15, 895–920, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-895-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-895-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study characterizes the Tchirezrine II sandstone reservoir in northern Niger. Crucial for potential uranium in situ recovery (ISR), our multifaceted approach reveals (i) a network of homogeneously distributed orthogonal structures, (ii) the impact of clustered E–W fault structures on anisotropic fluid flow, and (iii) local changes in the matrix behaviour of the reservoir as a function of the density and nature of the deformation structure.
Jeffrey M. Rahl, Brendan Moehringer, Kenneth S. Befus, and John S. Singleton
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1567, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1567, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
At the high temperatures present in the deeper crust, minerals such as quartz can flow much like silly putty. The detailed mechanisms of how atoms are reorganized depends upon several factors, such as the temperature and the rate of which the mineral changes shape. We present observations from a naturally-deformed rock showing that the amount of water present also influences the type of deformation in quartz, with implications for geological interpretations.
Matthew S. Hodge, Guri Venvik, Jochen Knies, Roelant van der Lelij, Jasmin Schönenberger, Øystein Nordgulen, Marco Brönner, Aziz Nasuti, and Giulio Viola
Solid Earth, 15, 589–615, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-589-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-589-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Smøla island, in the mid-Norwegian margin, has complex fracture and fault patterns resulting from tectonic activity. This study uses a multiple-method approach to unravel Smøla's tectonic history. We found five different phases of deformation related to various fracture geometries and minerals dating back hundreds of millions of years. 3D models of these features visualise these structures in space. This approach may help us to understand offshore oil and gas reservoirs hosted in the basement.
Pramit Chatterjee, Arnab Roy, and Nibir Mandal
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1077, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1077, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding the strain accumulation processes in ductile shear zones is essential to explain the failure mechanisms at great crustal depths. This study explores the rheological and kinematic factors determining the varying modes of shear accommodation in natural shear zones. Numerical simulations suggest that an interplay of the following parameters: initial bulk viscosity, bulk shear rate, and internal cohesion governs the dominance of one accommodation mechanism over the other.
Karsten Reiter, Oliver Heidbach, and Moritz O. Ziegler
Solid Earth, 15, 305–327, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-305-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-305-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
It is generally assumed that faults have an influence on the stress state of the Earth’s crust. It is questionable whether this influence is still present far away from a fault. Simple numerical models were used to investigate the extent of the influence of faults on the stress state. Several models with different fault representations were investigated. The stress fluctuations further away from the fault (> 1 km) are very small.
Yukinojo Koyama, Simon R. Wallis, and Takayoshi Nagaya
Solid Earth, 15, 143–166, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-143-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-143-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Stress along a subduction plate boundary is important for understanding subduction phenomena such as earthquakes. We estimated paleo-stress using quartz recrystallized grain size combined with deformation temperature and P–T paths of exhumed rocks. The obtained results show differential stresses of 30.8–82.7 MPa consistent over depths of 17–27 km in the paleo-subduction boundary. The obtained stress may represent the initial conditions under which slow earthquakes nucleated in the same domain.
Annelotte Weert, Kei Ogata, Francesco Vinci, Coen Leo, Giovanni Bertotti, Jerome Amory, and Stefano Tavani
Solid Earth, 15, 121–141, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-121-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-121-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
On the road to a sustainable planet, geothermal energy is considered one of the main substitutes when it comes to heating. The geological history of an area can have a major influence on the application of these geothermal systems, as demonstrated in the West Netherlands Basin. Here, multiple episodes of rifting and subsequent basin inversion have controlled the distribution of the reservoir rocks, thus influencing the locations where geothermal energy can be exploited.
Pâmela C. Richetti, Frank Zwaan, Guido Schreurs, Renata S. Schmitt, and Timothy C. Schmid
Solid Earth, 14, 1245–1266, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1245-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1245-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Araripe Basin in NE Brazil was originally formed during Cretaceous times, as South America and Africa broke up. The basin is an important analogue to offshore South Atlantic break-up basins; its sediments were uplifted and are now found at 1000 m height, allowing for studies thereof, but the cause of the uplift remains debated. Here we ran a series of tectonic laboratory experiments that show how a specific plate tectonic configuration can explain the evolution of the Araripe Basin.
Malte Froemchen, Ken J. W. McCaffrey, Mark B. Allen, Jeroen van Hunen, Thomas B. Phillips, and Yueren Xu
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2563, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2563, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Shanxi Rift is a young active rift in North China that formed superimposed on a Proterozoic orogen. The impact of these structures on the active rift faults is poorly constrained. Here we quantify the landscape response to active faulting and compare these to published maps of inherited structures. We find that inherited structures played an important role in the segmentation of the Shanxi Rift and in the development of Rift Interaction Zones, the most active regions of the Shanxi Rift.
Adam J. Cawood, Hannah Watkins, Clare E. Bond, Marian J. Warren, and Mark A. Cooper
Solid Earth, 14, 1005–1030, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1005-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1005-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Here we test conceptual models of fracture development by investigating fractures across multiple scales. We find that most fractures increase in abundance towards the fold hinge, and we interpret these as being fold related. Other fractures at the site show inconsistent orientations and are unrelated to fold formation. Our results show that predicting fracture patterns requires the consideration of multiple geologic variables.
Johanna Heeb, David Healy, Nicholas E. Timms, and Enrique Gomez-Rivas
Solid Earth, 14, 985–1003, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-985-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-985-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Hydration of rocks is a key process in the Earth’s crust and mantle that is accompanied by changes in physical traits and mechanical behaviour of rocks. This study assesses the influence of stress on hydration reaction kinetics and mechanics in experiments on anhydrite. We show that hydration occurs readily under stress and results in localized hydration along fractures and mechanic weakening. New gypsum growth is selective and depends on the stress field and host anhydrite crystal orientation.
Roy Helge Gabrielsen, Panagiotis Athanasios Giannenas, Dimitrios Sokoutis, Ernst Willingshofer, Muhammad Hassaan, and Jan Inge Faleide
Solid Earth, 14, 961–983, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-961-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-961-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Barents Shear Margin defines the border between the relatively shallow Barents Sea that is situated on a continental plate and the deep ocean. This margin's evolution history was probably influenced by plate tectonic reorganizations. From scaled experiments, we deduced several types of structures (faults, folds, and sedimentary basins) that help us to improve the understanding of the history of the opening of the North Atlantic.
Leslie Logan, Ervin Veress, Joel B. H. Andersson, Olof Martinsson, and Tobias E. Bauer
Solid Earth, 14, 763–784, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-763-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-763-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Pahtohavare Cu ± Au deposits in the Kiruna mining district have a dubious timing of formation and have not been contextualized within an up-to-date tectonic framework. Structural mapping was carried out to reveal that the deposits are hosted in brittle structures that cut a noncylindrical, SE-plunging anticline constrained to have formed during the late-Svecokarelian orogeny. These results show that Cu ± Au mineralization formed more than ca. 80 Myr after iron oxide–apatite mineralization.
Alexandra Tamas, Dan M. Tamas, Gabor Tari, Csaba Krezsek, Alexandru Lapadat, and Zsolt Schleder
Solid Earth, 14, 741–761, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-741-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-741-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Tectonic processes are complex and often difficult to understand due to the limitations of surface or subsurface data. One such process is inversion tectonics, which means that an area initially developed in an extension (such as the opening of an ocean) is reversed to compression (the process leading to mountain building). In this research, we use a laboratory method (analogue modelling), and with the help of a sandbox, we try to better understand structures (folds/faults) related to inversion.
Elizabeth Parker Wilson, Pablo Granado, Pablo Santolaria, Oriol Ferrer, and Josep Anton Muñoz
Solid Earth, 14, 709–739, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-709-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-709-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This work focuses on the control of accommodation zones on extensional and subsequent inversion in salt-detached domains using sandbox analogue models. During extension, the transfer zone acts as a pathway for the movement of salt, changing the expected geometries. When inverted, the salt layer and syn-inversion sedimentation control the deformation style in the salt-detached cover system. Three natural cases are compared to the model results and show similar inversion geometries.
Oriol Ferrer, Eloi Carola, and Ken McClay
Solid Earth, 14, 571–589, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-571-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-571-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Using an experimental approach based on scaled sandbox models, this work aims to understand how salt above different rotational fault blocks influences the cover geometry and evolution, first during extension and then during inversion. The results show that inherited salt structures constrain contractional deformation. We show for the first time how welds and fault welds are reopened during contractional deformation, having direct implications for the subsurface exploration of natural resources.
Chiara Montemagni, Stefano Zanchetta, Martina Rocca, Igor M. Villa, Corrado Morelli, Volkmar Mair, and Andrea Zanchi
Solid Earth, 14, 551–570, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-551-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-551-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Vinschgau Shear Zone (VSZ) is one of the largest and most significant shear zones developed within the Late Cretaceous thrust stack in the Austroalpine domain of the eastern Alps. 40Ar / 39Ar geochronology constrains the activity of the VSZ between 97 and 80 Ma. The decreasing vorticity towards the core of the shear zone, coupled with the younging of mylonites, points to a shear thinning behavior. The deepest units of the Eo-Alpine orogenic wedge were exhumed along the VSZ.
Jordi Miró, Oriol Ferrer, Josep Anton Muñoz, and Gianreto Manastchal
Solid Earth, 14, 425–445, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-425-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-425-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Using the Asturian–Basque–Cantabrian system and analogue (sandbox) models, this work focuses on the linkage between basement-controlled and salt-decoupled domains and how deformation is accommodated between the two during extension and subsequent inversion. Analogue models show significant structural variability in the transitional domain, with oblique structures that can be strongly modified by syn-contractional sedimentation. Experimental results are consistent with the case study.
Junichi Fukuda, Takamoto Okudaira, and Yukiko Ohtomo
Solid Earth, 14, 409–424, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-409-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-409-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We measured water distributions in deformed quartz by infrared spectroscopy mapping and used the results to discuss changes in water distribution resulting from textural development. Because of the grain size reduction process (dynamic recrystallization), water contents decrease from 40–1750 wt ppm in host grains of ~2 mm to 100–510 wt ppm in recrystallized regions composed of fine grains of ~10 µm. Our results indicate that water is released and homogenized by dynamic recrystallization.
Bastien Walter, Yves Géraud, Alexiane Favier, Nadjib Chibati, and Marc Diraison
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-397, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-397, 2023
Preprint archived
Short summary
Short summary
Lake Abhe in southwestern Djibouti is known for its exposures of massive hydrothermal chimneys and hot springs on the lake’s eastern shore. This study highlights the control of the main structural faults of the area on the development of these hydrothermal features. This work contributes to better understand hydrothermal fluid pathways in this area and may help further exploration for the geothermal development of this remarkable site.
Michael Rudolf, Matthias Rosenau, and Onno Oncken
Solid Earth, 14, 311–331, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-311-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-311-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Analogue models of tectonic processes rely on the reproduction of their geometry, kinematics and dynamics. An important property is fault behaviour, which is linked to the frictional characteristics of the fault gouge. This is represented by granular materials, such as quartz sand. In our study we investigate the time-dependent frictional properties of various analogue materials and highlight their impact on the suitability of these materials for analogue models focusing on fault reactivation.
Jessica Barabasch, Joyce Schmatz, Jop Klaver, Alexander Schwedt, and Janos L. Urai
Solid Earth, 14, 271–291, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-271-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-271-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We analysed Zechstein salt with microscopes and observed specific microstructures that indicate much faster deformation in rock salt with fine halite grains when compared to salt with larger grains. This is important because people build large cavities in the subsurface salt for energy storage or want to deposit radioactive waste inside it. When engineers and scientists use grain-size data and equations that include this mechanism, it will help to make better predictions in geological models.
Nicolás Molnar and Susanne Buiter
Solid Earth, 14, 213–235, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-213-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-213-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Progression of orogenic wedges over pre-existing extensional structures is common in nature, but deciphering the spatio-temporal evolution of deformation from the geological record remains challenging. Our laboratory experiments provide insights on how horizontal stresses are transferred across a heterogeneous crust, constrain which pre-shortening conditions can either favour or hinder the reactivatation of extensional structures, and explain what implications they have on critical taper theory.
Tania Habel, Martine Simoes, Robin Lacassin, Daniel Carrizo, and German Aguilar
Solid Earth, 14, 17–42, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-17-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-17-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Central Andes are one of the most emblematic reliefs on Earth, but their western flank remains understudied. Here we explore two rare key sites in the hostile conditions of the Atacama desert to build cross-sections, quantify crustal shortening, and discuss the timing of this deformation at ∼20–22°S. We propose that the structures of the Western Andes accommodated significant crustal shortening here, but only during the earliest stages of mountain building.
Naïm Célini, Frédéric Mouthereau, Abdeltif Lahfid, Claude Gout, and Jean-Paul Callot
Solid Earth, 14, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-14-1-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the peak temperature of sedimentary rocks of the SW Alps (France), using Raman spectroscopy on carbonaceous material. This method provides an estimate of the peak temperature achieved by organic-rich rocks. To determine the timing and the tectonic context of the origin of these temperatures we use 1D thermal modelling. We find that the high temperatures up to 300 °C were achieved during precollisional extensional events, not during tectonic burial in the Western Alps.
Luke N. J. Wedmore, Tess Turner, Juliet Biggs, Jack N. Williams, Henry M. Sichingabula, Christine Kabumbu, and Kawawa Banda
Solid Earth, 13, 1731–1753, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1731-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1731-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Mapping and compiling the attributes of faults capable of hosting earthquakes are important for the next generation of seismic hazard assessment. We document 18 active faults in the Luangwa Rift, Zambia, in an active fault database. These faults are between 9 and 207 km long offset Quaternary sediments, have scarps up to ~30 m high, and are capable of hosting earthquakes from Mw 5.8 to 8.1. We associate the Molaza Fault with surface ruptures from two unattributed M 6+ 20th century earthquakes.
Michał P. Michalak, Lesław Teper, Florian Wellmann, Jerzy Żaba, Krzysztof Gaidzik, Marcin Kostur, Yuriy P. Maystrenko, and Paulina Leonowicz
Solid Earth, 13, 1697–1720, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1697-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1697-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
When characterizing geological/geophysical surfaces, various geometric attributes are calculated, such as dip angle (1D) or dip direction (2D). However, the boundaries between specific values may be subjective and without optimization significance, resulting from using default color palletes. This study proposes minimizing cosine distance among within-cluster observations to detect 3D anomalies. Our results suggest that the method holds promise for identification of megacylinders or megacones.
Erik M. Young, Christie D. Rowe, and James D. Kirkpatrick
Solid Earth, 13, 1607–1629, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1607-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1607-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Studying how earthquakes spread deep within the faults they originate from is crucial to improving our understanding of the earthquake process. We mapped preserved ancient earthquake surfaces that are now exposed in South Africa and studied their relationship with the shape and type of rocks surrounding them. We determined that these surfaces are not random and are instead associated with specific kinds of rocks and that their shape is linked to the evolution of the faults in which they occur.
Sivaji Lahiri, Kitty L. Milliken, Peter Vrolijk, Guillaume Desbois, and Janos L. Urai
Solid Earth, 13, 1513–1539, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1513-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1513-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding the mechanism of mechanical compaction is important. Previous studies on mechanical compaction were mostly done by performing experiments. Studies on natural rocks are rare due to compositional heterogeneity of the sedimentary succession with depth. Due to remarkable similarity in composition and grain size, the Sumatra subduction complex provides a unique opportunity to study the micromechanism of mechanical compaction on natural samples.
Dongwon Lee, Nikolaos Karadimitriou, Matthias Ruf, and Holger Steeb
Solid Earth, 13, 1475–1494, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1475-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1475-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This research article focuses on filtering and segmentation methods employed in high-resolution µXRCT studies for crystalline rocks, bearing fractures, or fracture networks, of very small aperture. Specifically, we focus on the identification of artificially induced (via quenching) fractures in Carrara marble samples. Results from the same dataset from all five different methods adopted were produced and compared with each other in terms of their output quality and time efficiency.
Alberto Ceccato, Giulia Tartaglia, Marco Antonellini, and Giulio Viola
Solid Earth, 13, 1431–1453, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1431-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1431-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Earth's surface is commonly characterized by the occurrence of fractures, which can be mapped, and their can be geometry quantified on digital representations of the surface at different scales of observation. Here we present a series of analytical and statistical tools, which can aid the quantification of fracture spatial distribution at different scales. In doing so, we can improve our understanding of how fracture geometry and geology affect fluid flow within the fractured Earth crust.
Giulio Viola, Giovanni Musumeci, Francesco Mazzarini, Lorenzo Tavazzani, Manuel Curzi, Espen Torgersen, Roelant van der Lelij, and Luca Aldega
Solid Earth, 13, 1327–1351, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1327-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1327-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A structural-geochronological approach helps to unravel the Zuccale Fault's architecture. By mapping its internal structure and dating some of its fault rocks, we constrained a deformation history lasting 20 Myr starting at ca. 22 Ma. Such long activity is recorded by now tightly juxtaposed brittle structural facies, i.e. different types of fault rocks. Our results also have implications on the regional evolution of the northern Apennines, of which the Zuccale Fault is an important structure.
Wan-Lin Hu
Solid Earth, 13, 1281–1290, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1281-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1281-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Having a seismic image is generally expected to enable us to better determine fault geometry and thus estimate geological slip rates accurately. However, the process of interpreting seismic images may introduce unintended uncertainties, which have not yet been widely discussed. Here, a case of a shear fault-bend fold in the frontal Himalaya is used to demonstrate how differences in interpretations can affect the following estimates of slip rates and dependent conclusions.
Manuel D. Menzel, Janos L. Urai, Estibalitz Ukar, Thierry Decrausaz, and Marguerite Godard
Solid Earth, 13, 1191–1218, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1191-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1191-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Mantle rocks can bind large quantities of carbon by reaction with CO2, but this capacity requires fluid pathways not to be clogged by carbonate. We studied mantle rocks from Oman to understand the mechanisms allowing their transformation into carbonate and quartz. Using advanced imaging techniques, we show that abundant veins were essential fluid pathways driving the reaction. Our results show that tectonic stress was important for fracture opening and a key ingredient for carbon fixation.
Jean-Baptiste P. Koehl, Steffen G. Bergh, and Arthur G. Sylvester
Solid Earth, 13, 1169–1190, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1169-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1169-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The San Andreas fault is a major active fault associated with ongoing earthquake sequences in southern California. The present study investigates the development of the Indio Hills area in the Coachella Valley along the main San Andreas fault and the Indio Hills fault. The Indio Hills area is located near an area with high ongoing earthquake activity (Brawley seismic zone), and, therefore, its recent tectonic evolution has implications for earthquake prediction.
Jin Lai, Dong Li, Yong Ai, Hongkun Liu, Deyang Cai, Kangjun Chen, Yuqiang Xie, and Guiwen Wang
Solid Earth, 13, 975–1002, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-975-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-975-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
(1) Structural diagenesis analysis is performed on the ultra-deep tight sandstone. (2) Fracture and intergranular pores are related to the low in situ stress magnitudes. (3) Dissolution is associated with the presence of fracture.
Hamed Fazlikhani, Wolfgang Bauer, and Harald Stollhofen
Solid Earth, 13, 393–416, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-393-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-393-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Interpretation of newly acquired FRANKEN 2D seismic survey data in southeeastern Germany shows that upper Paleozoic low-grade metasedimentary rocks and possible nappe units are transported by Variscan shear zones to ca. 65 km west of the Franconian Fault System (FFS). We show that the locations of post-Variscan upper Carboniferous–Permian normal faults and associated graben and half-graben basins are controlled by the geometry of underlying Variscan shear zones.
Xiaodong Ma, Marian Hertrich, Florian Amann, Kai Bröker, Nima Gholizadeh Doonechaly, Valentin Gischig, Rebecca Hochreutener, Philipp Kästli, Hannes Krietsch, Michèle Marti, Barbara Nägeli, Morteza Nejati, Anne Obermann, Katrin Plenkers, Antonio P. Rinaldi, Alexis Shakas, Linus Villiger, Quinn Wenning, Alba Zappone, Falko Bethmann, Raymi Castilla, Francisco Seberto, Peter Meier, Thomas Driesner, Simon Loew, Hansruedi Maurer, Martin O. Saar, Stefan Wiemer, and Domenico Giardini
Solid Earth, 13, 301–322, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-301-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-301-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Questions on issues such as anthropogenic earthquakes and deep geothermal energy developments require a better understanding of the fractured rock. Experiments conducted at reduced scales but with higher-resolution observations can shed some light. To this end, the BedrettoLab was recently established in an existing tunnel in Ticino, Switzerland, with preliminary efforts to characterize realistic rock mass behavior at the hectometer scale.
Berit Schwichtenberg, Florian Fusseis, Ian B. Butler, and Edward Andò
Solid Earth, 13, 41–64, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-41-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-41-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Hydraulic rock properties such as porosity and permeability are relevant factors that have an impact on groundwater resources, geological repositories and fossil fuel reservoirs. We investigate the influence of chemical compaction upon the porosity evolution in salt–biotite mixtures and related transport length scales by conducting laboratory experiments in combination with 4-D analysis. Our observations invite a renewed discussion of the effect of sheet silicates on chemical compaction.
David Healy and Stephen Paul Hicks
Solid Earth, 13, 15–39, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-15-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-15-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The energy transition requires operations in faulted rocks. To manage the technical challenges and public concern over possible induced earthquakes, we need to quantify the risks. We calculate the probability of fault slip based on uncertain inputs, stresses, fluid pressures, and the mechanical properties of rocks in fault zones. Our examples highlight the specific gaps in our knowledge. Citizen science projects could produce useful data and include the public in the discussions about hazards.
Manuel I. de Paz-Álvarez, Thomas G. Blenkinsop, David M. Buchs, George E. Gibbons, and Lesley Cherns
Solid Earth, 13, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We describe a virtual geological mapping course implemented in response to travelling and social restrictions derived from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The course was designed to replicate a physical mapping exercise as closely as possible with the aid of real field data and photographs collected by the authors during previous years in the Cantabrian Zone (NW Spain). The course is delivered through Google Earth via a KMZ file with outcrop descriptions and links to GitHub-hosted photographs.
Yueyang Xia, Jacob Geersen, Dirk Klaeschen, Bo Ma, Dietrich Lange, Michael Riedel, Michael Schnabel, and Heidrun Kopp
Solid Earth, 12, 2467–2477, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2467-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2467-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The 2 June 1994 Java tsunami earthquake ruptured in a seismically quiet subduction zone and generated a larger-than-expected tsunami. Here, we re-process a seismic line across the rupture area. We show that a subducting seamount is located up-dip of the mainshock in a region that did not rupture during the earthquake. Seamount subduction modulates the topography of the marine forearc and acts as a seismic barrier in the 1994 earthquake rupture.
Steffen Abe and Hagen Deckert
Solid Earth, 12, 2407–2424, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2407-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2407-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We use numerical simulations and laboratory experiments on rock samples to investigate how stress conditions influence the geometry and roughness of fracture surfaces. The roughness of the surfaces was analyzed in terms of absolute roughness and scaling properties. The results show that the surfaces are self-affine but with different scaling properties between the numerical models and the real rock samples. Results suggest that stress conditions have little influence on the surface roughness.
Chao Deng, Rixiang Zhu, Jianhui Han, Yu Shu, Yuxiang Wu, Kefeng Hou, and Wei Long
Solid Earth, 12, 2327–2350, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2327-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2327-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study uses seismic reflection data to interpret the geometric relationship and evolution of intra-basement and rift-related structures in the Enping sag in the northern South China Sea. Our observations suggest the primary control of pre-existing thrust faults is the formation of low-angle normal faults, with possible help from low-friction materials, and the significant role of pre-existing basement thrust faults in fault geometry, paleotopography, and syn-rift stratigraphy of rift basins.
Sonia Yeung, Marnie Forster, Emmanuel Skourtsos, and Gordon Lister
Solid Earth, 12, 2255–2275, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2255-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2255-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We do not know when the ancient Tethys Ocean lithosphere began to founder, but one clue can be found in subduction accreted tectonic slices, including Gondwanan basement terranes on the island of Ios, Cyclades, Greece. We propose a 250–300 km southwards jump of the subduction megathrust with a period of flat-slab subduction followed by slab break-off. The initiation and its subsequent rollback of a new subduction zone would explain the onset of Oligo–Miocene extension and accompanying magmatism.
Rahul Prabhakaran, Giovanni Bertotti, Janos Urai, and David Smeulders
Solid Earth, 12, 2159–2209, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2159-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2159-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Rock fractures are organized as networks with spatially varying arrangements. Due to networks' influence on bulk rock behaviour, it is important to quantify network spatial variation. We utilize an approach where fracture networks are treated as spatial graphs. By combining graph similarity measures with clustering techniques, spatial clusters within large-scale fracture networks are identified and organized hierarchically. The method is validated on a dataset with nearly 300 000 fractures.
Olivier Lacombe, Nicolas E. Beaudoin, Guilhem Hoareau, Aurélie Labeur, Christophe Pecheyran, and Jean-Paul Callot
Solid Earth, 12, 2145–2157, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2145-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2145-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This paper aims to illustrate how the timing and duration of contractional deformation associated with folding in orogenic forelands can be constrained by the dating of brittle mesostructures observed in folded strata. The study combines new and already published absolute ages of fractures to provide, for the first time, an educated discussion about the factors controlling the duration of the sequence of deformation encompassing layer-parallel shortening, fold growth, and late fold tightening.
Vincent Famin, Hugues Raimbourg, Muriel Andreani, and Anne-Marie Boullier
Solid Earth, 12, 2067–2085, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2067-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2067-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Sediments accumulated in accretionary prisms are deformed by the compression imposed by plate subduction. Here we show that deformation of the sediments transforms some minerals in them. We suggest that these mineral transformations are due to the proliferation of microorganisms boosted by deformation. Deformation-enhanced microbial proliferation may change our view of sedimentary and tectonic processes in subduction zones.
Cited articles
Aksu, A., Calon, T., and Hiscott, R.: Anatomy of the North Anatolian Fault Zone
in the Marmara Sea, Western Turkey: Extensional basins above a continental
transform, GSA Today, 6, 3–7, 2000. a
Anders, M. and Wiltschko, D.: Microfracturing, paleostress and the growth of
faults, J. Struct. Geol., 16, 795–815, 1994. a
Antonellini, M. and Aydin, A.: Effect of faulting on fluid flow in porous
sandstones: Petrophysical properties, AAPG Bull., 78, 355–377, 1994. a
Barth, N., Toy, V., Langridge, R., and Norris, R.: Scale dependence of oblique
plate-boundary partitioning: New insights from LiDAR, central Alpine Fault,
New Zealand, Lithosphere, 4, 435–448, https://doi.org/10.1130/L201.1, 2012. a, b
Beavan, J., Ellis, S., Wallace, L., and Denys, P.: Kinematic constraints from
GPS on oblique convergence of the Pacific and Australian plates, central
South Island, New Zealand, in: A
continental plate boundary: Tectonics at South Island, New Zealand, edited by: Okaya, D., Stern, T. A., and Davey, F., AGU
Geophys. Monogr., 175, 75–94, 2007. a
Ben-Zion, Y.: Collective behavior of earthquakes and faults: Continuum-discrete
transitions, progressive evolutionary changes, and different dynamic regimes,
Rev. Geophys., 46, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008RG000260, 2008. a
Blenkinsop, T.: Thickness-displacement relationships for deformation zones:
Discussion, J. Struct. Geol., 11, 1051–1054, 1989. a
Boese, C., Townend, J., Smith, E., and Stern, T.: Microseismicity and stress in
the vicinity of the Alpine Fault, central southern Alps, New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 117, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JB008460, 2012. a, b
Bohnhoff, M., Martínez-Garzón, P., Bulut, F., Stierle, E., and Ben-Zion, Y.:
Maximum earthquake magnitudes along different sections of the North Anatolian
Fault Zone, Tectonophysics, 674, 147–165,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2016.02.028, 2016. a
Boulton, C., Moore, D., Lockner, D., Toy, V., Townend, J., and Sutherland, R.:
Frictional properties of exhumed fault gouges in DFDP-1 cores, Alpine Fault,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 356–362, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013GL058236,
2014. a, b, c
Boutareaud, S., Calugaru, D.-G., Han, R., Fabbri, O., Mizoguchi, K., Tsutsumi,
A., and Shimamoto, T.: Clay-clast aggregates: a new textural evidence for
seismic fault sliding?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL032554, 2008. a
Brodsky, E., Gilchrist, J., Sagy, A., and Collettini, C.: Faults smooth
gradually as a function of fault slip, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett.,
302, 185–193, 2011. a
Bruhn, R., Parry, W., Yonkee, W., and Thompson, T.: Fracturing and hydrothermal
alteration in normal fault zones, Pure Appl. Geophys., 142, 609–644, 1994. a
Bürgman, R. and Dresen, G.: Rheology of the lower crust and upper mantle:
Evidence from rock mechanics, geodesy and field observations, Annu. Rev. Earth Pl. Sc., 36, 531–567,
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.36.031207.124326, 2008. a
Carpenter, B., Kitajima, H., Sutherland, R., Townend, J., Toy, V., and Saffer,
D.: Hydraulic and acoustic properties of the active Alpine Fault, New
Zealand: Laboratory measurements on DFDP-1 drill core, Earth Planet.
Sc. Lett., 390, 45–51, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.12.023, 2014. a, b, c
Carpenter, B., Saffer, D., and Marone, C.: Composition, alteration, and texture
of fault-related rocks from SAFOD core and surface outcrop analogs: evidence
for deformation processes and fluid-rock interaction, Pure Appl.
Geophys., 172, 5273–5289, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JB011963, 2015. a
Carpentier, S., Green, A., Langridge, R., Boschetti, S., Doetsch, J.,
Abächerli, A., Horstmeyer, H., and Finnemore: Flower structures and
Riedel shears at a step over zone along the Alpine Fault (New Zealand)
inferred from 2D and 3D GPR images, J. Geophys. Res., 117,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JB008749, 2012. a, b
Chester, F. and Logan, J.: Implications for mechanical properties of brittle
faults from observations of the Punchbowl Fault Zone, California, Pure
Appl. Geophys., 124, 79–106, 1986. a
Chester, J., Chester, F., and Kronenberg, A.: Fracture surface energy of the
Punchbowl Fault, San Andreas System, Nat. Lett., 437, 133–136,
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03942, 2005. a, b
Columbus, J., Sirguey, P., and Tenzer, R.: A free fully assessed 15 meter
digital elevation model for New Zealand, Survey Quarterly, 66, 16–19,
2011. a
Cox, S., Etheridge, M., and Wall, V.: The role of fluids in syntectonic mass
transport and the localization of metamorphic vein-type ore deposits, Ore
Geol. Rev., 2, 65–86, 1986. a
Czaplinska, D., Piazolo, S., and Zibra, I.: The influence of phase and grain
size distribution on the dynamics of strain localization in polymineralic
rocks, J. Struct. Geol., 72, 15–32,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2015.01.001, 2015. a
DeMets, C., Gordon, R., and Argus, D.: Geologically current plate motion,
Geophys. J. Int., 181, 1–80,
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04491.x, 2010. a
Döbelin, N. and Kleeberg, R.: Profex: A graphical user interface for the
Rietveld refinement program BGMN, J. Appl. Crystallogr., 48,
1573–1580, 2015. a
Dolejš, D. and Manning, C.: Thermodynamic model for mineral solubility in
aqueous fluids: theory, calibration and application to model fluid-flow
systems, Geofluids, 10, 20–40, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-8123.2010.00282.x,
2010. a
Edbrooke, S. W., Heron, D. W., Forsyth, P. J., and Jongens, R.: Geological Map of New
Zealand 1:1,000,000, GNS Science Geological Map 2, 2 print maps, Lower Hut, New Zealand,
GNS Science, 2015. a
Eguchi, R., Goltz, J., Taylor, C., Chang, S., Flores, P., Johnson, L.,
Seligson, H., and Blais, N.: Direct economic losses in the Northridge
Earthquake: A three-year post-event perspective, Earthq. Spectra, 14, 245–264, 1998. a
Fagereng, A., Remitti, F., and Sibson, R.: Shear veins observed within
anisotropic fabric at high angles to the maximum compressive stress, Nat.
Geosci., 3, 482–485, 2010. a
Faulkner, D., Mitchell, T., Healy, D., and Heap, M.: Slip on “weak” faults by
the rotation of regional stress in the fracture damage zone, Nat. Lett.,
444, 922–925, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05353, 2006. a, b
Faulkner, D., Jackson, C., Lunn, R., Schlische, R., Shipton, Z., Wibberley, C.,
and Withjack, M.: A review of recent developments concerning the structure,
mechanics and fluid flow properties of fault zones, J. Struct.
Geol., 32, 1557–1575, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2010.06.009, 2010. a, b, c, d, e
Fossen, H.: Structural Geology, Cambridge University Press, 2nd Edn., 2016. a
Fossen, H. and Cavalcante, G.: Shear zones – A review, Earth-Sci. Rev.,
171, 434–455, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.05.002, 2017. a, b
Grant, J.: Isocon analysis: a brief review of the method and applications,
Phys. Chem. Earth, 30, 997–1004,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2004.11.003, 2005. a, b, c
Grapes, R., Watanabe, T., and Palmer, K.: XRF analyses of quartzofeldspathic
schists and metacherts, Franz Josef – Fox Glacier area, Southern Alps of New
Zealand, Victoria University of Wellington Geology Department publication,
25, 11 pp., 1982. a
Gresens, R.: Composition-volume relationships of metasomatism, Chem.
Geol., 2, 47–65, 1967. a
Haines, S. and van der Pluijm, B.: Clay quantification and Ar–Ar dating
of synthetic and natural gouge: Application to the Miocene Sierra Mazatán
Detachment Fault, Sonora, Mexico, J. Struct. Geol., 30, 525–538, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2007.11.012, 2008. a
Hickman, S., Sibson, R., and Bruhn, R.: Introduction to special section:
mechanical involvement of fluids in faulting, J. Geophys.
Res., 100, 12831–12840, 1995. a
Hobbs, B., Mühlhaus, H.-B., and Ord, A.: Instability, softening and
localization of deformation, in:
Deformation Mechanisms, Rheology and Tectonics, edited by: Knipe, R. J. and Rutter, E. H., Geol. Soc. Spec.
Publ., 54, 143–165, 1990. a
Holdsworth, R., van Diggelen, E., Spiers, C., de Bresser, J., Walker,
R., and Bowen, L.: Fault rocks from the SAFOD core samples: implications
for weakening at shallow depths along the San Andreas Fault, California,
J. Struct. Geol., 33, 132–144,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2010.11.010, 2011. a
Hollingsworth, J., Ye, L., and Avouac, J.-P.: Dynamically triggered slip on a
splay fault in the Mw 7.8, 2016 Kaikoura (New Zealand)
earthquake, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 3517–3525,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL072228, 2017. a
Howarth, J., Cochran, U., Langridge, R., Clark, K., Fitzsimons, S., Berryman,
K., Villamor, P., and Strong, D.: Past large earthquakes on the Alpine Fault:
paleoseismological progress and future directions, New Zeal. J.
Geol. Geophys., 61, 309–328, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2018.1464658,
2018. a, b
Hull, J.: Thickness-displacement relationships for deformation zones, J. Struct. Geol., 10, 431–435, 1988. a
Janku-Capova, L., Sutherland, R., Townend, J., Doan, M.-L., Massiot, C.,
Coussens, J., and Célérier, B.: Fluid flux in fractured rock of the Alpine
Fault hanging-wall determined from temperature logs in the DFDP-2B borehole,
New Zealand, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 9, 2631–2646, 2018. a
Janssen, C., Laube, N., Bau, M., and Gray, D.: Fluid regime in faulting
deformation of the Waratah Fault Zone, Australia, as inferred from major and
minor element analyses and stable isotopic signatures, Tectonophysics, 204,
109–130, 1998. a
Janssen, C., Wirth, R., Wenk, H.-R., Morales, L., Naumann, R., Kienast, M.,
Song, S.-R., and Dresen, G.: Faulting processes in active faults – evidences
from TCDP and SAFOD drill core samples, J. Struct. Geol., 65,
100–116, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2014.04.004, 2014. a
Kaiser, A., Green, A., Campbell, F., Horstmeyer, H., Manukyan, E., Langridge,
R., McClymont, A., Mancktelow, N., Finnemore, M., and Nobes, D.:
Ultrahigh-resolution seismic reflection imaging of the Alpine Fault, New
Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 114, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JB006338,
2009. a, b
Laurich, B., Urai, J., and Nussbaum, C.: Microstructures and deformation
mechanisms in Opalinus Clay: insights from scaly clay from the Main Fault in
the Mont Terri Rock Laboratory (CH), Solid Earth, 8, 27–44, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-8-27-2017, 2017. a
Laurich, B., Urai, J., Vollmer, C., and Nussbaum, C.: Deformation mechanisms
and evolution of the microstructure of gouge in the Main Fault in Opalinus
Clay in the Mont Terri Rock Laboratory (CH), Solid Earth, 9, 1–24,
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1-2018, 2018. a
Lay, V., Buske, S., Lukács, A., Gorman, A., Bannister, S., and Schmitt, D.:
Advanced seismic imaging techniques characterize the Alpine Fault at Whataroa
(New Zealand), J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 121, 8792–8812,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JB013534, 2016. a
Li, H., Wang, H., Xu, Z., Si, J., Pei, J., Li, T., Huang, Y., Song, S.-R., Kuo,
L.-W., Sun, Z., Chevalier, M.-L., and Liu, D.: Characteristics of the
fault-related rocks, fault zones and the principal slip zone in the Wenchuan
Earthquake Fault Scientific Drilling Project Hole-1 (WFSD-1), Tectonophysics,
584, 23–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.08.021, 2013. a
Lindsey, E., Fialko, Y., Bock, Y., Sandwell, D., and Bilham, R.: Localized and
distributed creep along the southern San Andreas Fault, J.
Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 119, 7909–7922,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JB011275, 2014. a
Lockner, D., Morrow, C., Moore, D., and Hickman, S.: Low strength of deep San
Andreas Fault gouge from SAFOD core, Nature, 472, 82–86,
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09927, 2011. a
Lukács, A., Gorman, A., and Norris, R.: Quaternary structural and
paleo-environmental evolution of the Alpine Fault near Haast, New Zealand,
from 2D seismic reflection and gravity data, New Zeal. J. Geol.
Geophys., 31, 181–213, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2018.1544153, 2018. a, b, c
Ma, K., Tanaka, H., Song, S.-R., Wang, C.-Y., Hung, J.-H., Tsai, Y.-B., Mori,
J., Song, Y., Yeh, E., Soh, W., Sone, H., Kuo, L.-W., and Wu, H.-Y.: Slip
zone and energetics of a large earthquake from the Taiwan Chelungpu-fault
Drilling Project, Nature, 444, 473–475, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05253, 2006. a
Martínez-Garzón, P., Bohnhoff, M., Ben-Zion, Y., and Dresen, G.: Scaling of
maximum observed magnitudes with geometrical and stress properties of
strike-slip faults, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 10230–10238,
https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggx169, 2015. a
Massiot, C., Célérier, B., Doan, M.-L., Little, T., Townend, J., McNamara,
D., Williams, J., Schmitt, D., Toy, V., Sutherland, R., Janku-Capova, L.,
Upton, P., and Pezard, P.: The Alpine Fault hanging-wall viewed from within:
Structural analysis of ultrasonic image logs in the DFDP-2B borehole, New
Zealand, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 19, 2492–2515,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2017GC007368, 2018. a, b
Menzies, C., Teagle, D., Niedermann, S., Cox, S., Craw, D., Zimmer, M., Cooper,
M., and Erzinger, J.: Frictional strength of wet and dry montmorillonite,
Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 455, 125–135,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.03.046, 2016. a, b, c
Mitchel, T. and Faulkner, D.: The nature and origin of off-fault damage
surrounding strike-slip fault zones with a wide range of displacements: A
field study from the Atacama fault system, northern Chile, J.
Struct. Geol., 31, 802–816, 2009. a
Moore, D. and Lockner, D.: Friction of smectite clay montmorillonite, in: The
Seismogenic Zone of Subduction Thrust Faults, Columbia
University Press, 317–345, 2007. a
Moore, D., Lockner, D., Shengli, M., Summers, R., and Byerlee, J.: Strength of
serpentinite gouges at elevated temperatures, J. Geophys.
Res., 102, 14787–14801, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL046129, 1997. a
Nardini, L., Rybacki, E., Döhmann, M., Morales, L., Brune, S., and Dresen,
G.: High-temperature shear zone formation in Carrara marble: The effect of
loading conditions, Tectonophysics, 749, 120–139,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2018.10.022, 2018. a
Nicol, A., Robinson, R., Van Dissen, R., and Harvison, A.: Variability of
recurrence interval and single-event slip for surface-rupturing earthquakes
in New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geophys., 59, 97–116, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2015.1127822, 2016. a
Norris, R. and Cooper, A.: Origin of small-scale segmentation and
transpressional thrusting along the Alpine Fault, New Zealand, GSA Bull.,
107, 231–240, 1995. a
Norris, R. and Cooper, A.: Late Quaternary slip rates and slip partitioning on
the Alpine Fault, New Zealand, J. Struct. Geol., 23, 507–520,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JB013658, 2000. a
Norris, R. and Cooper, A.: Very high strains recorded in mylonites along the
Alpine Fault, New Zealand: Implications for the deep structure of plate
boundary faults, J. Struct. Geol., 25, 2141–2157, 2003. a
Norris, R. and Toy, V.: Continental transforms: A view from the Alpine Fault,
J. Struct. Geol., 64, 3–31, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2014.03.003,
2014. a, b
Passchier, C. and Trouw, R.: Microtectonics, Springer, 2nd Edn., 2005. a
Peacock, D., Nixon, C., Rotevatn, A., Sanderson, D., and Zuluaga, L.: Glossary
of fault and other fracture networks, J. Struct. Geol., 92, 12–29, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2016.09.008, 2016. a
Reed, J.: Myonites, cataclasites, and associated rocks along the Alpine Fault,
South Island, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geophys., 7,
645–684, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.1964.10428124, 1964. a
Roser, B. and Cooper, A.: Geochemistry and terrane affiliation of Haast schist
from the western southern Alps, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol.
Geophys., 33, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.1990.10427567, 1990. a, b
Rybacki, E., Janssen, C., Wirth, R., Chen, K., Wenk, H.-R., Stromeyer, D., and
Dresen, G.: Low-temperature deformation in calcite veins of SAFOD core
samples (San Andreas Fault) – microstructural analysis and implications for
fault rheology, Tectonophysics, 509, 107–119,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2011.05.014, 2011. a
Rybacki, E., Morales, L., Naumann, M., and Dresen, G.: Strain localization
during high temperature creep of marble: The effect of inclusions,
Tectonophysics, 634, 182–197, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2014.07.032, 2014. a
Sagy, A. and Brodsky, E.: Geometric and rheological asperities in an exposed
fault zone, J. Geophys. Res., 114, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JB005701,
2009. a, b, c, d
Sahin, M. and Tari, E.: The August 17 Kocaeli and the November 12 Düzce
earthquakes in Turkey, Earth Planet. Space, 52, 753–757,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2011.05.014, 2000. a
Schindelin, J., Arganda-Carreras, I., Frise, E., Kaynig, V., Longair, M.,
Pietzsch, T., Preibisch, S., Rueden, C., Saalfeld, S., Schmid, B., Tinevez,
J.-Y., White, D., Hartenstein, V., Eliceiri, K., Tomancak, P., and Cardona,
A.: Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis, Nat.
Method., 9, 676–682, 2012. a
Schleicher, A., van der Pluijm, B., and Warr, L. N.: Nanocoatings of clay
and creep of the San Andreas Fault at Parkfield, Geology, 38, 667–670,
https://doi.org/10.1130/G31091.1, 2010. a
Schleicher, A., Sutherland, R., Townend, J., Toy, V., and van der
Pluijm, B.: Clay mineral formation and fabric development in the DFDP-1B
borehole, central Alpine Fault, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol.
Geophys., 58, 13–21, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2014.979841, 2015. a, b, c
Schneider, C., Rasband, W., and Eliceiri, K.: NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of
image analysis, Nat. Method., 9, 671–675, 2012. a
Scholz, C.: Wear and gouge formation in brittle faulting, Geology, 15, 493–495, 1987. a
Scott, J., Auer, A., Muhling, J., Czertowicz, T., Cooper, A., Billia, M., and
Kennedy, A.: New P-T and U-Pb constraints on Alpine Schist metamorphism in
south Westland, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geophys.,
58, 385–397, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2015.1093005, 2015. a, b, c
Segall, P. and Pollard, D.: Nucleation and growth of strike slip faults in
granite, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 555–568,
https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2015.1093005, 1983. a
Shervais, K. and Kirkpatrick, J.: Smoothing and re-roughening processes: The
geometric evolution of a single fault zone, J. Struct. Geol.,
98, 130–143, 2016. a
Sibson, R.: A note on fault reactivation, J. Struct. Geol., 7, 751–754, 1985. a
Stern, T., Kleffmann, S., Okaya, D., Scherwath, M., and Bannister, S.: Low
seismic-wave speeds and enhanced fluid pressure beneath the Southern Alps of
New Zealand, Geology, 29, 679–682, 2001. a
Sutherland, R., Eberhart-Phillips, D., Harris, R., Stern, T., Beavan, J.,
Ellis, S., Henrys, S., Cox, S., Norris, R., Berryman, K., Townend, J.,
Bannister, S., Pettinga, J., Leitner, B., Wallace, L., Little, T., Cooper,
A., Yetton, M., and Stirling, M.: Do great earthquakes occur on the Alpine
Fault in central South Island, New Zealand?, in: A continental plate boundary: Tectonics at South Island,
New Zealand, edited by: Okaya, D., Stern, T. A., and
Davey, F., AGU Geophys. Monogr., 175, 235–251, 2007. a, b, c, d, e, f
Sutherland, R., Toy, V., Townend, J., Cox, S., Eccles, J., Faulkner, D., Prior,
D., Norris, R., Mariani, E., Boulton, C., Carpenter, B., Menzies, C., Little,
T., Hasting, M., De Pascale, G., Langridge, R., Scott, H., Lindroos, Z.,
Fleming, B., and Kopf, A.: Drilling reveals fluid control on architecture and
rupture of the Alpine Fault, New Zealand, Geology, 40, 1143–1146,
https://doi.org/10.1130/G33614.1, 2012. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n
Sutherland, R., Townend, J., Toy, V., Allen, M., Baratin, L., Barth, N.,
Becroft, L., Benson, L., Boese, C., Boles, A., Boulton, C., Capova, L.,
Carpenter, B., Célérier, B., Chamberlain, C., Conze, R., Cooper, A.,
Coussens, J., Coutts, A., Cox, S., Craw, L., Doan, M., Eccles, J., Faulkner,
D., Grieve, J., Grochowski, J., Gulley, A., Henry, G., Howarth, J., Jacobs,
K., Jeppson, T., Kato, N., Keys, S., Kirilova, M., Kometani, Y., Kovacs, A.,
Langridge, R., Lin, W., Little, T., Mallyon, D., Mariani, B., Marx, R.,
Massiot, C., Mathewson, L., Melosh, B., Menzies, C., Moore, J., Morales, L.,
Morgan, C., Mori, H., Niemeijer, A., Nishikawa, O., Nitsch, O., Paris
Cavailhès, J., Pooley, B., Prior, D., Pyne, A., Sauer, K., Savage, M.,
Schleicher, A., Schmitt, D., Shigematsu, N., Taylor-Offord, S., Tobin, H.,
Upton, P., Valdez, R., Weaver, K., Wiersberg, T., Williams, J., Yeo, S., and
Zimmer, M.: Deep Fault Drilling Project (DFDP), Alpine Fault Boreholes
DFDP-2A and DFDP-2B Technical Completion Report, GNS Science Report 2015/50, 269 pp.,
2015. a
Sutherland, R., Townend, J., Toy, V., Upton, P., Coussens, J., Allen, M.,
Baratin, L.-M., Barth, N., Becroft, L., Boese, C., Boles, A., Boulton, C.,
Broderick, N., Janku-Capova, L., Carpenter, B., Célérier, B., Chamberlain,
C., Cooper, A., Coutts, A., Cox, S., Craw, L., Doan, M.-L., Eccles, J.,
Faulkner, D., Grieve, J., Grochowski, J., Gulley, A., Hartog, A., Howarth,
J., Jacobs, K., Jeppson, T., Kato, N., Keys, S., Kirilova, M., Kometani, Y.,
Langridge, R., Lin, W., Little, T., Lukacs, A., Mallyon, D., Mariani, E.,
Massiot, C., Mathewson, L., Melosh, B., Menzies, C., Moore, J., Morales, L.,
Morgan, C., Mori, H., Niemeijer, A., Nishikawa, O., Prior, D., Sauer, K.,
Savage, M., Schleicher, A., Schmitt, D., Shigematsu, N., Taylor-Offord, S.,
Teagle, D., Tobin, H., Valdez, R., Weaver, K., Wiersberg, T., Williams, J.,
Woodman, N., and Zimmer, M.: Extreme hydrothermal conditions at an active
plate-bounding fault, Nature, 545, 137–140, 2017. a
Toby, B.: R factors in Rietveld analysis: How good is good enough?, Powder
Diffr., 21, 67–70, 2006. a
Toppozada, T., D.M., B., Reichle, M., and Hallstrom, C. L.: San Andreas Fault
Zone, California: M ≥ 5.5 earthquake history, B.
Seismol. Soc. Am., 92, 2555–2601, 2002. a
Townend, J. and Zoback, M.: How faulting keeps the crust strong, Geology, 28,
399–402, 2000. a
Townend, J., Sutherland, R., Toy, V., Eccles, J., Boulton, C., Cox, S., and
McNamara, D.: Late-interseismic state of a continental plate-bounding fault:
Petrophysical results from DFDP-1 wireline logging and core analysis, Alpine
Fault, New Zealand, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 14, 3801–3820,
https://doi.org/10.1002/ggge.20236, 2013. a, b, c, d, e
Townend, J., Sutherland, R., Toy, V., Doan, M.-L., Célérier, B., Massiot, C.,
Coussens, J., Jeppson, T., Janku-Capova, L., Remaud, L., Upton, P., Schmitt,
D., Williams, J., Allen, M., Baratin, L.-M., Barth, N., Becroft, L., Boese,
C., Boulton, C., Broderick, N., Carpenter, B., Chamberlain, C., Cooper, A.,
Coutts, A., Cox, S., Craw, L., Eccles, J., Faulkner, D., Grieve, J.,
Grochowski, J., Gulley, A., Hartog, A., Henry, G., Howarth, J., Jacobs, K.,
Kato, N., Keys, S., Kirilova, M., Kometani, Y., Langridge, R., Lin, W.,
Little, T., Lukacs, A., Mallyon, D., Mariani, E., Mathewson, L., Melosh, B.,
Menzies, C., Moore, J., Morales, L., Mori, H., Niemeijer, A., Nishikawa, O.,
Nitsch, O., Paris, J., Prior, D., Sauer, K., Savage, M., Schleicher, A.,
Shigematsu, N., Taylor-Offord, S., Teagle, D., Tobin, H., Valdez, R., Weaver,
K., Wiersberg, T., and Zimmer, M.: Petrophysical, geochemical, and
hydrological evidence for extensive fracture-mediated fluid and heat
transport in the Alpine Fault’s hanging-wall damage zone, Geochem.
Geophy. Geosy., 18, 4709–4732, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GC007202, 2017. a, b, c, d
Toy, V., Norris, R., Prior, D., Walrond, M., and Cooper, A.: How do lineations
reflect the strain history of transpressive shear zones? The example of the
active Alpine Fault Zone, New Zealand, J. Struct. Geol., 50, 187–198, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2012.06.006, 2013. a
Toy, V., Boulton, C., Sutherland, R., Townend, J., Norris, R., Little, T.,
Prior, D., Mariani, E., Faulkner, D., Menzies, C., Scott, H., and Carpenter,
B.: Fault rock lithologies and architecture of the central Alpine Fault, New
Zealand, revealed by DFDP-1 drilling, Lithosphere, 7, 155–173,
https://doi.org/10.1130/L395.1, 2015. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n
Toy, V., Sutherland, R., Townend, J., Allen, M., Becroft, L., Boles, A.,
Boulton, C., Carpenter, B., Cooper, A., Cox, S., Daube, C., Faulkner, D.,
Halfpenny, A., Kato, N., Keys, S., Kirilova, M., Kometani, Y., Little, T.,
Mariani, E., Melosh, B., Menzies, C., Morales, L., Morgan, C., Mori, H.,
Niemeijer, A., Norris, R., Prior, D., Sauer, K., Schleicher, A., Shigematsu,
N., Teagle, D., Tobin, H., Valdez, R., Williams, J., Yea, S., Baratin, L.-M.,
Barth, N., Benson, A., Boese, C., Célérier, B., Chamberlain, C., Conze, R.,
Coussens, J., Craw, L., Doan, M.-L., Eccles, J., Grieve, J., Grochowski, J.,
Gulley, A., Howarth, J., Jacobs, K., Janku-Capova, L., Jeppson, T.,
Langridge, R., Mallyon, D., Marx, R., Massiot, C., Mathewson, L., Moore, J.,
Nishikawa, O., Pooley, B., Pyne, A., Savage, M., Schmitt, D., Taylor-Offord,
S., Upton, P., Weaver, K., Wiersberg, T., Zimmer, M., and DFDP-2 Science
Team: Bedrock geology of DFDP-2B, central Alpine Fault, New Zealand, New
Zeal. J. Geol. Geophys., 60, 497–518,
https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2017.1375533, 2017. a, b, c, d
Upton, P., Song, B., and Koons, P.: Topographic control on shallow fault
structure and strain partitioning near Whataroa, New Zealand demonstrates
weak Alpine Fault, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geophys., 61, 1–8,
https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2017.1397706, 2017. a
Van Eijs, R., Mulders, F., Nepveu, M., Kenter, C., and Scheffers, B.:
Correlation between hydrocarbon reservoir properties and induced seismicity
in the Netherlands, Eng. Geol., 84, 99–111,
https://doi.org/19.1016/j.enggeo.2006.01.002, 2006. a
Vannucchi, P., Maltman, A., Bettelli, G., and Clennell, B.: On the nature of
scaly fabric and scaly clay, J. Struct. Geol., 25, 673–688,
2003. a
Warr, L. and Cox, S.: Clay mineral transformations and weakening mechanisms
along the Alpine Fault, New Zealand, in: The nature and tectonic
significance of fault zone weakening, edited by: Holdsworth, R. E., Strachan, R. A.,
Magloughlin, J. F., and Knipe, R. J., Geol. Soc. Lond. Sp.
Publ., 186, 85–101, 2001. a
Warren-Smith, E., Lamb, S., and Stern, T.: Stress field and kinematics for
diffuse microseismicity in a zone of continental transpression, South Island,
New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 122, 2798–2811,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JB013942, 2017. a
Wibberley, C., Yielding, G., and Di Toro, G.: Recent advances in the
understanding of fault zone internal structure: a review, in: The
Internal Structure of Fault Zones: Implications for Mechanical and Fluid-Flow
Properties, edited by: Wibberley,
C. A. J., Kurz, W., Imber, J., Holdsworth, R. E., and Collettini, C., Geol. Soc. Lond. Sp. Publ., 299, 5–33,
https://doi.org/10.1144/SP299.2, 2008. a, b
Williams, J., Toy, V., Smith, S., and Boulton, C.: Fracturing, fluid-rock
interaction and mineralization during the seismic cycle along the Alpine
Fault, J. Struct. Geol., 103, 151–166,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2017.09.011, 2017. a
Wirth, R.: A novel technology for advanced application of micro- and
nanoanalysis in geosciences and applied mineralogy, Eur. J.
Mineral., 16, 863–876, https://doi.org/10.1127/0935-1221/2004/0016-0863, 2004. a
Wirth, R.: Focused Ion Beam (FIB) combined with SEM and TEM: advanced
analytical tools for studies of chemical composition, microstructure and
crystal structure in geomaterials on a nanometre scale, Chem. Geol.,
261, 217–229, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2008.05.019, 2009. a
Zoback, M., Hickman, S., and Ellsworth, W.: The role of fault zone drilling,
in: Treatise on geophysics, edited by: Schubert, G., Elsevier,
Amsterdam, 649–674, 2007. a
